ÿWPC H§ið'ùIc$u;ñmïã_Ic$8g `.©I}îŽí® ¼Ö¯ öy+†=Û¹ÿ5ˆÓ„PZol2”ˆ$Õb`1oú«¡ï&ÒZ®¡J[†¬1Þ¦”n_þ(ÀÈ|Á5oa½/ÕR˳Ò\qšŸ;¥5mÕTƒ!ŽM¾çêfreõsó¥’”s˜+áöC÷ÍB'%éÅy§‘ãÐZ{7í0ƒt%NÍDxYWÔo¼¯ñãfkÍX¸Á0ù±¦ìƇË×v1ß8|UóÒ-…:þ¹,2JxìÙ;][¡öÒ+¶½£*Òƒ…Mã‡Ü™ÔH¶„þVáàzÕ»î_Þh¡þ.x¤RÆ·9eU"a‰yRÐ gY™³&J7øíŽöóà=Œq±cÖÔ fkÙ£sÛ gݬžœÛB\ƒw*0¹?@¥Š‚IaΚ^©¬SàCRZ!Cy"ðå´¨Hó³ u“$ÎE³ŽYñèÝðûÛêItI³iv|ÓçCôË×Z¢±Òä'Y:Ä^{ýª"èÕmÖ3ÛR‹ázo2J²ýX#‰r\?5egH®º3þö í)”°ÈÅþÆ%^gº­çZ*È®UoC¿±üõ«WëK8¤fO½×åi.©Ëý¡5ºŽÎÔ#!&UNG %• 0(›U.Ãw@ñ41ET mVMmUNq B¿ 0AÜ 0GT qI 0DÈE ˜HP LaserJet 4M,ü,,,,,ü0xÈhH  Z6Times New Roman RegularX($¡¡,xÐðA`Univers 6 U7 8 E9 U: E; < [= À> V? tÃ$@8P! - ~<:3|x? !ÿU‹ÿÀÀÀ(ÈhH  Z ‹6Times New Roman Regular d(Vm$˜˜Ìà0  àà ° à(,!ù$™™à0  àà0` (#(#àà  à ?Ý ƒ¯'ÝÝ  Ý›Ó  Óò òICONS€User€Manualó ó(3¯$§§Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  Ý Ý ƒ!ÝÝ  ݛӀÓÓ  Óñ< ñò òñ< ññ? ññ= ñÔ‡¼NÄ»XXÔñ= ññ? ññ? ñó óÒ°ÒÑTRXà3Ø' Letter3Ø'3Ø' Letterÿ3Ø'TÑÌÌÌÌÌÌÌÔ‡°my°XXÔà  àà ` àà ¸ àICONS€USER€MANUAL€€€Ð @  Ðß?€ ' °À <˜dE° <˜?ßÐ  p ÐÌÔ#†Xú®X°°myç#ÔÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àDirected€byÌò òà  àà ` àà ¸ àJonathan€Wilkenfeldó óÐ  [  Ðà  àà ` àà ¸ àDepartment€of€Government€and€PoliticsÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àÌÌÌÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àUniversity€of€MarylandÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àCollege€Park,€MD€€20742Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ à(301)€405„4172Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ àicons@¢bss2£.¢umd.edu£Ìà  àà ` àà ¸ à¢http£://¢www.icons.umd.edu£ÌÌÌÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àDeveloped€Under€the€Auspices€of€theÌÌÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àU.S.€Department€of€EducationÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àInternational€Business€Machine€CorporationÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àUniversity€of€MarylandÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àMaryland€State€Department€of€EducationÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àNational€Council€on€Foreign€Language€and€InternationalÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àà  àStudiesÌÌÌà  àà ` àà ¸ àò òDRAFT:€August€31,€1998ó óÐ K,›') Ðà  àà ` àà ¸ àCopyright€1998,€Project€ICONSÔ‡XÍXXXú®Ô,€Ô#†Xú®XXXÍœ#ÔUniversity€of€MarylandÔ‡¼NÄ»XXú®Ôò òñ? ññ> ñÐ  ;-‹(* Ðñ> ññ7 ñICONS€User€Manualñ7 ññ= ñÔ#†Xú®X»¼NÄö#Ôñ= ññ8 ññ7 ñeñ7 ññ8 ññ9 ñÐ ° ÐTable€ñ9 ññ: ññ9 ñ¢ñ9 ññ: ññ9 ñoñ9 ññ: ññ9 ñcñ9 ññ: ññ; ñf€Contentsñ; ññ< ñó óñ< ññ: ññ9 ñ£€ñ9 ññ: ññ6 ñÐ È Ðñ6 ñÝ‚VmÿÝÌÝ  ÝÝ‚Vm˜Ýà0  àà ° àÝ  Ýò òOverviewó óà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.ää(#(##à1݃Vm˜´ÝŒˆÐ ¨ø ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùVÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝIntroductionà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.ä ä ` (#` (##à1݃!ùVqÝŒˆÐ ˜è ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù%Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝRationale€for€the€Approachà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.ŠŠ)` (#` (##à2݃!ù%@ÝŒˆÐ ˆ Ø ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝHow€the€Simulation€Worksà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.šš'` (#` (##à3݃!ùÝŒˆÐ x È ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÝÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝRole€of€the€Facilitatorà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.è è &` (#` (##à4݃!ùÝøÝŒˆÐ h ¸ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù·Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝConnecting€to€ICONSà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.ú ú "` (#` (##à6݃!ù·ÒÝŒˆÐ X ¨ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚VmÿÝÌÝ  ÝÝ‚VmÝà0  àà ° àÝ  Ýò òSimulation€Methodologyó óà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.ì ì (#(##à6݃Vm©ÝŒˆÐ 8ˆ  ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùYÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝEarly€Simulation€Trialsà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.^^&` (#` (##à6݃!ùYtÝŒˆÐ (x  ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù3Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝICONS€Simulationsà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.P P ` (#` (##à8݃!ù3NÝŒˆÐ h  ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚VmÿÝÌÝ  ÝÝ‚Vm Ýà0  àà ° àÝ  Ýò òStructure€of€an€ICONS€Simulationó óà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.HH*(#(##à9݃Vm # ÝŒˆÐ øH  ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÝ Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝPreparationà‚#Ä"Ä"J(#.    ` (#` (##à9݃!ùÝ ø ÝŒˆÐ è8 ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù« Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝSimulationà‚#`"`"I(#.x x ` (#` (##à10݃!ù« Æ ÝŒˆÐ Ø( ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùy Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝDebriefing€and€Evaluationà‚#`"`"I(#.NN(` (#` (##à11݃!ùy ” ÝŒˆÐ È ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚VmÿÝÌÝ  ÝÝ‚VmV Ýà0  àà ° àÝ  Ýò òImplementation€Issuesó óà‚#`"`"I(#.8 8 (#(##à12݃VmV r ÝŒˆÐ ¨ø ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù" Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝCountry„Team€Rolesà‚#`"`"I(#.š š !` (#` (##à12݃!ù" = ÝŒˆÐ ˜è ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùø Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝTeam€Organizationà‚#`"`"I(#.  ` (#` (##à14݃!ùø ÝŒˆÐ ˆØ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÍÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝDecision„Making€Proceduresà‚#`"`"I(#.&&)` (#` (##à15݃!ùÍèÝŒˆÐ xÈ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù«Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝScenarioà‚#`"`"I(#.  ` (#` (##à17݃!ù«ÆÝŒˆÐ h¸ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùwÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝPosition€Papersà‚#`"`"I(#.à à ` (#` (##à18݃!ùw’ÝŒˆÐ X¨ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùJÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝCommunication€Proceduresà‚#`"`"I(#.ºº'` (#` (##à20݃!ùJeÝŒˆÐ H˜ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù&Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝForeign€Languageà‚#`"`"I(#.º º ` (#` (##à21݃!ù&AÝŒˆÐ 8ˆ ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùúÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝUmpiringà‚#`"`"I(#.  ` (#` (##à23݃!ùúÝŒˆÐ (x ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÆÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝGradesà‚#`"`"I(#.< < ` (#` (##à24݃!ùÆáÝŒˆÐ h ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝRevisiting€the€Facilitatorððs€Roleà‚#`"`"I(#.  0` (#` (##à25݃!ù«ÝŒˆÐ  X ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚VmÿÝÌÝ  ÝÝ‚VmxÝà0  àà ° àÝ  Ýò òAppendixó óà‚#`"`"I(#.ôô(#(##à27݃Vmx”ÝŒˆÐ è!8 ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù7Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝICONS€Bibliographyà‚#`"`"I(#.² ² !` (#` (##à27݃!ù7RÝŒˆÐ Ø"(  ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ù Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  ÝPosition€Paper€Outlineà‚#`"`"I(#.%` (#` (##à30݃!ù (ÝŒˆÐ È#! ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùÿÝÝ  ÝÝ‚!ùçÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àÝ  Ýñ5 ññ, ñÐ Ðñ, ññ5 ñDebriefing€Questionsà‚#`"`"I(#.º º #` (#` (##à32݃!ùçÝŒˆÐ ¸$ " ÐŒÝ  ÝÓ *ÓÐ  ¨%ø # ÐØØÔ  ÔÔ‡¼Ž„»XXú®Ôò òÑ8€ú®XXdðXXdð8ÑÖ€ÿÿÖOverviewÔ  Ôó óÔ#†Xú®X»¼Ž„-#ÔÐ h ÐThis€document€is€intended€to€guide€faculty€members€in€preparing€their€students€to€participate€inÏan€ICONS€simulation.€€The€first€section€contains€a€brief€introduction€to€ICONS€and€what€isÏrequired€to€participate.€€The€following€sections€contain€a€history€of€simulations€used€in€theÏinternational€relations€classroom,€a€more€detailed€description€of€the€structure€of€an€ICONSÏsimulation,€and€a€discussion€of€various€issues€related€to€implementing€ICONS€in€a€class.ÌÌFor€more€information€about€ICONS€„„€including€past€and€current€simulation€scenarios,Ïregistration€information,€and€a€research€library€„„€€please€access€the€ICONS€website€atÏò òhttp://www.icons.umd.eduó ó.Ð ˜  ÐÌÔ  Ôò òIntroductionó óÔ ¢ÔÐ àx  ÐThe€ICONS€Project€is€an€interdisciplinary€effort€that€uses€simulation€techniques€to€teachÏinternational€negotiation€and€intercultural€communication€skills€to€college€and€high€schoolÏstudents.€€Housed€at€the€University€of€Maryland,€the€project€implements€a€world„wide,€multi„¼institution,€computer„assisted€simulation€network€that€thrusts€students€into€the€world€of€high„¼powered€international€negotiations.ÌÌICONS€lets€students:ÌÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àCreate€and€test€negotiation€strategiesÐPè` (#` (# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àUnderstand€the€interdependence€of€international€issuesÐ@Ø` (#` (# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àAppreciate€cultural€differences€and€approaches€to€world€problemsÐ0È` (#` (# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àWork€in€teams€to€solve€problemsÐ ¸` (#` (# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àUse€computers€for€multinational€communication.Ш` (#` (# ÐÌCreated€by€Jonathan€Wilkenfeld€and€Richard€D.€Brecht€of€the€University€of€Maryland,€CollegeÏPark,€ICONS€began€as€a€tool€for€helping€students€gain€a€better€grasp€of€the€complexity€ofÏinternational€issues.€€Each€year,€ICONS€runs€simulations€involving€more€than€100€colleges,Ïuniversities,€and€secondary€schools€in€the€United€States€and€throughout€the€world.€€Its€mainÏpurpose€is€to€broaden€studentsðð€perspectives€and€make€them€aware€of€what€it€is€like€to€negotiateÏinterconnected€global€problems€from€the€perspectives€of€various€nations.ÌÌParticipants€learn€not€only€what€is€involved€in€governmental€decision„making,€but€moreÏimportantly,€what€it€feels€like€to€be€a€decision„maker€for€a€foreign€government€with€a€veryÏdifferent€set€of€cultural€constraints.€€As€they€attempt€to€implement€policy€initiatives€and€resolve€Ìinternational€disputes,€students€confront€foreign€policy€issues€in€a€context€that€provides€anÏauthenticity€of€experience€unobtainable€in€other€educational€settings.ÌÌEach€simulation€lasts€three€to€five€weeks,€and€is€set€in€the€contemporary€world€projected€forwardÏabout€6€months€to€allow€an€original€simulated€world€to€develop.€€A€scenario,€which€launches€theÐ ,¨%( Ðexercise,€outlines€the€state€of€the€world€based€on€present„day€facts.ÌÌThe€simulation€offers€students€the€opportunity€to€explore€such€foreign€policy€issues€asÏinternational€debt,€nuclear€proliferation,€human€rights,€trade,€and€the€global€environment,€andÏregional€conflict€areas€such€as€the€Middle€East€and€Europe.ÌÌFinally,€the€ICONS€Project€meets€the€broadly€acknowledged€need€to€bring€technology€in€to€theÏsocial€science€and€humanities€classroom.€€Through€their€participation€in€the€simulation,€studentsÏlearn€to€use€the€computer€in€a€concrete€way,€as€a€work€instrument.€€Moreover,€the€application€ofÏinformation€technology€in€the€simulation€resembles€its€use€in€the€real€world€of€internationalÏrelations.€€It€is€the€interaction€of€these€substance€and€skill€areas€that€makes€the€simulation€anÏespecially€effective€instructional€tool.Ô‡XMXXXú®ÔÐ ¸P  ÐÔ#†Xú®XXXM1(#ÔÌÔ  Ôò òRationale€for€the€Approachó óÔ ‰(ÔÐ ˜0  ÐThe€simulation€mode€of€instruction€has€proven€to€be€an€excellent€vehicle€for€immersing€studentsÏinto€the€world€of€foreign€affairs.€€Cast€in€the€roles€of€national€decision„makers,€they€must€dealÏwith€foreign€policy€issues€in€a€constantly€changing€environment.€€As€negotiations€proceed€andÏother€teams€reject€or€modify€initial€bargaining€strategies,€students€are€continually€forced€toÏreassess€their€countryððs€position,€using€new€information€introduced€as€the€simulated€worldÏunfolds.ÌÌICONS€is€based€on€the€notion€that€students€need€to€develop€greater€awareness€of€alternativeÏpolicy€options€and€the€linkages€among€issues€confronting€nations.€€Moreover,€as€theirÏperspectives€expand€so€does€their€understanding€of,€and€appreciation€for,€cultural€differences€andÏnational€approaches€to€problem„solving.€€It€is€this€widening€of€vision,€the€deepening€of€insight,Ïand€the€refinement€of€skills€that€students€claim€are€the€most€valuable€lessons€of€the€simulation.ÌÌThe€ICONS€simulation€exercises€create€a€worldwide€laboratory€in€which€a€personal€computerÏbecomes€an€educational€tool€to€link€students€in€classrooms€around€the€world.€The€accessibility€ofÏcomputer€terminal€and€the€ð ðfriendlinessðð€of€the€whole€process€make€participation€in€theÐ ˜!0 Ðsimulation€exercise€enjoyable,€instructive,€and€cost€effective.ÌÌA€recent€evaluation€of€ICONS€reported€that€the€simulation€experience€is€an€overwhelminglyÏsuccessful€one.€€Participating€students€report€that€their€understanding€of€the€complexity€ofÏinternational€issues€increased€at€the€same€time€that€their€perception€of€the€world€as€being€dividedÏinto€ð ðweðð€and€ð ðtheyðð€decreased.€€They€also€reported€an€increased€sensitivity€to€cultural€andÐ 8'Ð # Ðlinguistic€differences€and€a€greater€understanding€of€the€different€perspectives€that€nations€bringÏto€negotiating€situations.ÌÌWhile€most€teams€cannot€claim€to€have€ð ðsolvedðð€a€global€crisis€by€the€end€of€the€simulation,€theyÐ ø*$' Ðcome€away€with€a€clearer€understanding€of€the€countries€they€represent.€€In€addition,€they€agreeÐ è+€%( Ðuniformly€that€their€participation€has€made€them€more€aware€of€the€many€pitfalls€and€difficultiesÏof€achieving€global€harmony.ÌÌA€bibliography€of€publications€on€the€ICONS€Project€and€its€precursors€appears€in€theÏò òAppendixó ó.Ð ( À ÐÌÔ  Ôò òHow€the€Simulation€Worksó óÔ 2ÔÐ    ÐICONS€is€a€foreign„policy€oriented€simulation€that€has€been€found€to€be€an€excellent€vehicle€forÏinvolving€students€in€complex€decision„making€contexts.€€The€simulation€is€capable€ofÏsupporting€20„25€country€teams,€each€of€which€can€be€located€at€different€universities€or€highÏschools,€linked€via€the€Internet€to€a€central€server€at€the€University€of€Maryland.€€It€is€flexible€inÏits€construction,€incorporating€real€world€current€events€into€each€tailored€scenario.€€TheÏsimulation€software€(ICONSnet)€is€capable€of€processing€the€daily€flow€of€messages€amongÏteams,€and€can€classify,€store,€retrieve,€and€analyze€these€messages€either€during€or€subsequent€toÏa€particular€exercise,€and€supports€real„time€computer€conferencing.€€Finally,€ICONSÏincorporates€a€sophisticated€monitoring€and€control€capability€so€that€those€directing€the€exerciseÏcan€maintain€contact€with€its€diverse€elements.ÌÌAlthough€the€ICONS€simulation€network€uses€advanced€computer€technology€and€software,€theÏsystem€the€student„participants€actually€use€is€quite€simple€to€operate.€€€For€a€given€country„¼team,€there€are€three€basic€activities:ÌÌà  àò òððó óà0 ` àò òReceiving€messages:€ó óA€student€(representing€the€country-team)€accesses€theÐ   Ðsystem€from€his€or€her€local€computer€(whether€in€a€classroom,€computer€lab,€orÏat€home)€via€the€Internet.€€After€logging€in,€the€student€can€click€a€button€„„€ð ðReadÐ è€ ÐNew€Messagesðð€„„€to€pull€up€the€text€of€all€incoming€messages€for€that€teamÐ Øp Ðwhich€have€been€sent€since€the€last€time€the€team€read€its€mail.€Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌò òà0  àððà0` (#(#àSending€messagesó ó:€€By€clicking€another€button€--€ð ðSend€Messageðð€--€the€teamsÐ ¨ @ Ðcan€send€messages€throughout€the€simulation€network.€€A€student€can€either€enterÏthe€text€of€a€message€directly€in€the€on„screen€form€or€can€ð ðcut€and€pasteðð€to€theÐ ˆ"  Ðform€from€his€or€her€word€processor.€€Once€entered,€the€text€is€sent€to€€itsÏrecipient(s)€instantaneously,€where€it€waits€in€the€simulation€database€until€theÏreceiving€team€signs€on€to€read€its€messages.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àò òððó óà0` (#(#àò òConferencing:ó ó€€One€of€the€unique€features€of€the€ICONS€system€is€its€real-timeÐ 8'Ð # Ðconferencing€capability.€€Two€or€more€country-teams€at€different€locations€canÏsign€on€simultaneously€and€communicate€with€each€other€in€real-time.€€As€teamsÏsubmit€conference€statements,€they€receive€statements€from€the€other€conferenceÏparticipants.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÐ è+€%( ÐStudents€can€also€easily€review€the€text€of€messages€that€they€have€ð ðarchivedðð,€as€well€as€pastÐ h Ðconferences.ÌÌThe€simulation€is€launched€by€a€scenario,€€which€represents€the€differing€perspectives€ofÏcountries€on€a€variety€of€international€issues,€setting€the€stage€for€the€interactions€both€within€andÏamong€country€teams.€€During€recent€runs€of€the€simulation,€the€scenarios€focused€on€theÏfollowing€problem€areas€in€contemporary€international€relations:ÌÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àThe€spread€of€nuclear€weapons€technology€and€the€implications€for€the€stability€ofÐ è € Ðthe€international€system;Ð ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àHuman€rights;ÐÈ` ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àWorld€health,€including€nutrition,€population,€and€AIDS;иP ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àThe€impact€of€environmental€issues€on€the€global€agenda;Ш@ ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àChemical,€biological,€and€conventional€weapons€control;И0 ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àForeign€debt€restructuring;Ј ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àForeign€aid€and€development;Ðx` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àEuropean€integration;Ðh` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àNarcotics€trafficking;ÐXð` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àInternational€trade.ÐHà` (#` (# ÐÌTypically,€a€simulation€lasts€about€three€to€five€weeks€with€as€many€as€3,000€messagesÏexchanged€among€country-teams€during€that€period.€€In€addition€to€routine€diplomaticÏcommunications,€computer-assisted€real-time€conferences€are€conducted€among€the€major€actorsÏin€various€issue€areas.€€Scheduled€conferences€focus€on€each€of€the€issues€in€the€simulation.€ÏThey€follow€a€detailed€agenda€and€are€moderated€by€ICONS€staff.ÌÌAfter€the€simulation,€the€on-line€retrieval€capability€is€ideally€suited€for€supporting€studentÏresearch€projects€and€for€evaluating€student€performance.€€It€is€possible,€for€example,€to€reviewÏmessage€chains€to€assess€the€success€of€a€particular€negotiating€strategy.€€The€evaluation€processÏhas€proven€enormously€instructive€for€students€and€instructors€alike.Ô‡XMXXXú®ÔÐ ˜!0 ÐÔ#†Xú®XXXM¢E#ÔÌÔ  Ôò òRole€of€the€Facilitatoró óÔ úEÔÐ x# ÐRegardless€of€the€way€the€simulation€is€brought€into€the€classroom,€it€is€the€faculty€facilitator€--Ïthe€teacher€--€who€plays€a€major€role€in€shaping€and€tailoring€the€learning€opportunities€offeredÏin€each€individual€setting.€€The€facilitator€is€expected€to€be€a€resource€for€the€students,€andÏshould€have€the€ability€to€direct€students€to€the€information€and€materials€necessary€for€them€toÏdevelop€their€nationððs€positions€on€international€problems,€or€to€translate€messages€effectively.€ÏThe€facilitatorððs€key€role€is€that€of€questioner€--€motivating€the€team€and€encouraging€dialogueÏand€debate,€with€the€ultimate€goal€of€helping€the€students€gain€an€appreciation€for€the€complexityÏof€the€intercultural€negotiation€process.ÌÐ è+€%( ÐOutside€of€the€classroom,€the€facilitator€is€responsible€for€organizing€the€simulation€at€his€or€herÏinstitution.€€Several€months€before€the€simulation€is€set€to€begin,€project€staff€will€send€aÏquestionnaire€soliciting€information€regarding€participation€in€the€simulation:€dates€ofÏavailability€and€country-team€preferences.€€ÌÌBased€upon€the€responses,€ICONS€project€staff€then€assign€country-teams€and€determine€whichÏlanguages€will€be€used€in€that€particular€simulation.€€This€information€is€then€conveyed€to€theÏparticipants€the€semester€before€the€simulation€will€run.€€The€scenario,€which€highlights€theÏissues€of€interest€to€the€countries€represented€in€the€simulation,€is€then€written,€and€madeÏavailable€to€you€at€the€beginning€of€the€semester€of€the€simulation.ÌÌAs€the€faculty€facilitator,€your€job€is€to€ensure€that€the€country-team€is€well€prepared€toÏparticipate€in€the€simulation.€€Specific€activities€include€the€following:Ìò òÌà  àBefore€the€Simulationó ó:Ð ˆ  Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àCoordinating€country-team€assignments€with€project€staff.Ðx` (#` (# ÐÌ€€à0  àððà0` (#(#àTesting€the€computer€hardware€and€software€well€before€the€simulation€to€ensureÐ Xð Ðthat€they€are€working€properly.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌ€€€à0  àððà0` (#(#àPreparing€your€students€for€the€simulation€through€lectures,€research€reports,€etc.Ð(À` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àò òDuring€the€Simulationó ó:Р(#(# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àMonitoring€your€team€to€ensure€a€reasonable€message€flow€and€to€see€that€itsÐ ø Ðmessages€are€of€good€quality€in€terms€of€content,€plausibility,€andÏdiplomatic/professional€language.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àMaintaining€contact€with€project€staff.иP` (#` (# ÐÌò òà0  àAt€the€Close€of€the€Simulationó ó:И!0(#(# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àDebriefing€your€students€on€the€simulation€experience.Ј" ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àHelping€your€students€see€the€relationships€between€the€preparatory€course€workÐ h$  Ðand€the€actual€simulation€exercise.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àHaving€your€students€perform€final€research€projects€based€on€their€simulationÐ 8'Ð # Ðparticipation.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àEvaluating€the€impact€of€the€simulation€on€studentsðð€perception€of€theÐ * #& Ðinternational€system.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÐ è+€%( ÐAlthough€this€might€seem€like€a€monumental€effort€on€your€part,€facilitators€in€previousÏexercises€have€told€us€they€experience€a€great€deal€of€satisfaction€in€seeing€their€students€soÏgreatly€motivated€by€a€learning€experience.€€Keep€in€mind€that€extra€effort€is€needed€whenÏintroducing€any€new€course.€€The€ICONS€simulation€is€no€exception,€but€the€first€time€through€isÏthe€most€difficult.€€Once€instituted,€the€simulation€becomes€much€easier€to€maintain.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òConnecting€to€ICONSó óÔ €UÔÐ    ÐThe€simulation€runs€by€linking€participating€universities€or€high€schools€to€a€World€Wide€WebÏserver€at€the€University€of€Maryland€via€the€Internet.€€ÌÌA€participating€school€must€at€the€minimum€have€access€to€a€computer,€an€Internet€connection,Ïand€a€web€browser,€such€as€Netscape€Navigator€or€Microsoft€Internet€Explorer.€€(While€aÏgraphical€browser€is€preferable,€ICONSnet€was€designed€to€be€compatible€with€text„basedÏbrowsers€in€order€to€support€users€with€older€computers€or€disabilities.)€€A€printer€and€wordÏprocessing€software€(for€preparing€messages€in€advance)€are€also€recommended.ÌÌPlease€feel€free€to€contact€ICONS€staff€with€any€questions€you€may€have€about€hardware€orÏsoftware€configurations.€Ô‡XMXXXú®ÔÐ Xð ÐÌÔ#†Xú®XXXM’X#ÔÌÔ  ÔÔ‡¼Ž„»XXú®Ôò òSimulation€Methodologyó óÔ#†Xú®X»¼Ž„øX#ÔÔ ëXÔÐ (À ÐÌÔ  Ôò òEarly€Simulation€Trialsó óÔ }YÔÐ 0È ÐIn€the€field€of€international€relations,€the€group€of€kindred€activities€referred€to€as€ð ðpoliticalÐ  ¸ Ðgaming,ðð€ð ðsimulation€gamesðð,€ð ðcrisis€gamesðð,€ð ðcomputer€simulationsðð€and€the€like,€has€beenÐ ¨ Ðaround€in€one€form€or€another€for€several€decades.€€It€has€its€roots€in€such€intellectual€traditionsÏas€military€strategy,€diplomatic€analysis,€international€relations€scholarship,€organizationalÏsociology,€operations€research,€economics,€and€computer€science.€€One€way€of€distinguishingÏthese€various€types€of€simulation€activities€from€one€another€is€to€categorize€them€by€the€roleÏplayed€by€the€ð ðmachineðð€or€computer.€€Ð À!X ÐÌThe€simulation€exercises€used€in€the€ICONS€Project€grow€out€of€a€type€of€simulation€that€in€itsÏoriginal€form€was€not€closely€associated€with€computers.€€Sometimes€referred€to€as€ð ðall-manððÐ $(  Ðsimulations,€they€originated€with€policy-oriented€people€more€interested€in€understandingÏparticular€situations€than€in€the€discovery€of€scientific€generalizations.€Their€aim€was€to€captureÏmore€of€the€complexity€and€subtlety€of€international€political€issues€through€the€use€of€fairlyÏdetailed€scenarios,€which€focused€on€real€or€plausible€policy€problems.ÌÌThese€simulation€games€were€played€for€periods€of€varying€length;€but€an€entire€game€seldomÏrepresented€more€than€a€few€weeks€of€actual€calendar€time,€during€which€most€of€the€variables€atÏthe€systems€level€of€analysis€were€assumed€to€be€relatively€unchanged.€€Unlike€ð ðman-machineððÐ ,¨%( Ðsimulations,€which€cast€the€computer€in€a€central€role,€these€simulations€were€ð ðfree-formðð,€withÐ h Ðcountry-teams€often€staffed€by€foreign€policy€experts€and€area€specialists,€whose€decisions€wereÏconstrained€not€by€the€rigid€input€requirements€of€a€computer€model,€but€rather€by€judgmentalÏconsiderations€of€plausibility.€ÌÌMuch€of€the€thrust€of€the€efforts€with€man-machine€simulation€in€international€relations€wasÏsocial€scientific€in€spirit.€€The€goal€was€the€development€of€a€body€of€explicit,€systematic,Ïempirical€theory.€€Scholars€like€Guetzkow,€whose€work€on€the€ð ðInter-Nation€Simulationðð€had€soÐ ø  Ðmuch€impact€on€subsequent€developments,€were€interested€in€the€development€of€a€reliable€andÏvalid€experimental€tool.ÌÌReplicability€was€essential€to€this€purpose.€€The€emphasis€in€this€work€was€on€systematicallyÏmodeling€the€decisional€environment€for€participating€decision€makers.ÌÌThe€ICONS€simulation€exercises€can€be€traced€back€to€a€hybrid€form,€closer€in€spirit€to€theÏfree-form€games€of€the€all-man€paradigm,€but€relying€for€their€success€interactive€computing,Ïwhich€enable€human€participants€at€distant€locations€to€negotiate€with€each€other€through€theÏassistance€of€a€computer-based€communications€network.€€The€earliest€trials€of€this€type€ofÏsimulation€exercise€were€performed€by€Professor€Robert€C.€Noel€of€the€University€of€CaliforniaÏat€Santa€Barbara.€€His€aim€was€to€see€whether€the€game€would€retain€its€essential€elements€if€theÏparticipants€were€physically€removed€from€one€another.€€The€first€ð ðdistributedðð€games€used€aÐ (À Ðscenario€based€on€a€nuclear€proliferation€theme€and€set€in€the€Middle€East€circa€1973.€€TheÏparticipating€country-teams€were€students€in€undergraduate€courses€in€international€relations€atÏvarious€universities€in€California.€ÌÌDespite€their€primitive€nature,€these€early€trials€removed€any€doubt€about€the€basic€feasibility€ofÏdistributed€gaming€exercises.€€While€the€dynamics€of€the€interactions€were€altered,€they€were€notÏdistorted€by€the€new€medium.€€The€addition€of€inter„location€competition€clearly€represented€aÏnew€dimension€for€the€exercises.€€Since€then,€the€enormous€expansion€of€international€computingÏnetworks€and€declining€hardware€and€communication€costs€have€brought€the€exercises€within€theÏmeans€of€most€institutions.ÌÌSeveral€conclusions€can€be€drawn€about€the€feasibility€of€distributed€gaming€--€from€a€variety€ofÏperspectives.€€Although€not€all€early€exercises€were€unqualified€successes,€the€overall€experienceÏwith€them€has€firmly€established€the€feasibility€of€the€concept.€€Technical€feasibility,€which€wasÏa€problem€in€the€early€days,€is€no€longer€in€question.€€Neither€is€there€any€remaining€doubt€aboutÏthe€behavioral€feasibility€of€the€idea€--€that€is,€whether€the€total€package€can€evoke€the€desiredÏforms€of€human€behavior€in€an€appropriate€manner.€€The€simple€facts€are€that€distributed€politicalÏgaming€does€work€and€that€the€quality€is€independent€of€the€communications€medium.ÌÌParticipants€in€the€simulation€exercises€have€reported€an€increase€in€student€motivation€to€be€aÐ è+€%( Ðmajor€benefit.€€The€exercises€are€also€said€to€enhance€conceptual€insight.€€They€foster€theÏdevelopment€of€an€analytic€approach€to€policy€evaluation.€€They€help€to€bridge€the€gap€betweenÏtheory€and€practice.€€They€promote€empathetic€understanding€and€provide€relevance€to€otherÏcourse€and€instructional€materials€that€potentially€lack€them.€€Most€importantly,€the€exercisesÏfoster€a€better€understanding€on€the€part€of€students€of€the€interdependency€of€issues€and€systems.ÌÌOne€of€the€great€strengths€of€the€simulation€methodology€lies€in€the€fact€that€it€brings€faculty€andÏstudents€from€different€schools€and€in€different€courses€together€in€meaningful€intellectualÏactivities.€€They€do€so€in€ways€that€do€not€make€sense€from€a€single€campus€perspective.€€MostÏcurricula€include,€in€addition€to€courses€in€general€international€relations,€specialized€courses€inÏthe€foreign€policy€of€key€nations€and€in€foreign€policy€issues,€such€as€arms€control€andÏdisarmament€or€the€international€economic€order.€€In€any€one€academic€term,€however,€only€aÏsubset€of€these€courses€can€actually€be€taught.€€Given€considerations€of€size€of€faculty,€estimatedÏenrollments,€course€load€and€preferences,€and€curriculum€balance,€the€latitude€for€coordinatingÏsome€of€the€more€specialized€courses€is€often€limited.€€What€the€simulation€exercises€offer€isÏaccess€to€scholars€and€courses€at€other€campuses€whose€similar€interests€allow€an€exploration€ofÏthe€international€system€otherwise€unavailable.€€In€sum,€the€demonstration€of€the€complexity€andÏinterdependence€of€the€international€system€is€made€feasible€through€the€application€of€inter„¼departmental€cooperation.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òICONS€Simulationsó óÔ ÉrÔÐ (À ÐThe€early€1980s€were€a€period€of€transition€for€the€ICONS€simulation.€€During€that€time,€theÏsoftware€was€enhanced€and€ported€first€to€a€VAX€on€the€University€of€California€at€BerkeleyÏsystem,€and€then€to€the€University€of€Maryland,€where€it€ran€on€a€PDP-11/44,€and€later€on€aÏMicro€VAX€II.€€The€redesigned€POLNET€II€software€used€until€1997€ran€on€a€DEC„Station€5000Ïon€ULTRIX€4.2,€with€users€maintaining€a€constant€connection€to€the€system€through€telnet.€ÌÌWhile€POLNET€II€well€supported€the€needs€of€simulation€participants,€it€was€far€moreÏcumbersome€for€users€than€the€graphical€user€interfaces€which€had€become€quite€common€by€theÏearly€1990s.€€Consequently,€ICONS€set€out€to€make€the€system€more€intuitive€and€user„friendly,Ïas€well€as€reduce€the€burden€on€the€users€of€maintaining€a€constant€connection€to€the€ICONSÏserver.€€By€1995,€the€World€Wide€Web€and€related€technologies€made€it€possible€for€us€toÏprovide€users€with€an€easy„to„use€interface€and€minimal€local€computer€requirements.€€ICONSÏdeveloped€an€entirely€new€software€package€that€replicated€and€enhanced€the€essential€features€ofÏPOLNET€II€in€a€web„based€application.€€ICONSnet,€which€debuted€in€1997,€is€written€in€OracleÏPL/SQL€and€runs€on€Oracle€Database€and€Oracle€Application€Server.€€€All€that€is€required€toÏaccess€the€system€is€an€Internet€connection€and€a€web€browser.€€Many€faculty€members€haveÏreported€that€ICONSnet€enriches€the€studentsðð€learning€experience€because€they€can€nowÏconcentrate€on€their€simulation€negotiations€without€having€to€worry€about€technologicalÏdemands.ÌÐ è+€%( ÐThe€number€of€participating€institutions€has€increased,€both€in€the€United€States€and€abroad,€soÏthat€a€typical€ICONS€exercise€involves€as€many€as€25€universities€or€high€schools€representingÏmore€than€20€country-teams,€and€as€many€as€750€participating€students.€€Since€1990,€162Ïuniversities€and€129€secondary€schools€from€37€countries€have€participated€in€ICONSÏsimulations.ÌÌÌÔ  ÔÔ‡¼Ž„»XXú®Ôò òStructure€of€an€ICONS€SimulationÐ ø  Ðó óÔ#†Xú®X»¼Ž„Ïz#ÔÔ ÂzÔA€typical€simulation€exercise€can€be€divided€into€three€distinct€phases:€€(1)€preparation;€(2)Ð ¨ Ðsimulation;€and€(3)€debriefing€and€evaluation.€€In€the€sections€below,€we€will€discuss€each€ofÏthese€phases€in€turn.€€Some€of€the€processes€will€be€further€elaborated€in€the€ò òImplementationó óÐ ðˆ  Ðsection€below.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òPreparationó óÔ ·|ÔÐ ÀX  ÐAs€we€have€indicated,€the€most€typical€setting€for€participation€in€an€ICONS€exercise€is€a€courseÏin€comparative€foreign€policy,€international€politics,€or€current€events.€€The€simulation€thenÏbecomes€part€of€the€substantive€content€of€the€course€itself,€as€concepts€developed€in€lectures€andÏreadings€are€employed€by€students€during€their€participation€in€the€exercise.ÌÌIt€is€most€beneficial€to€have€approximately€6€weeks€of€preparation€before€the€simulation€begins.€ÏThis€is€not€always€necessary,€but€we€have€found€that€both€students€and€faculty€need€a€relativelyÏlong€stretch€of€time€for€preparation.€€The€key€to€preparation€for€the€exercise€is€the€scenario,Ïwhich€is€given€to€all€participating€faculty€members€at€the€beginning€of€the€semester.€€EachÏstudent€should€receive€a€copy€of€the€scenario.€€The€scenario,€to€be€addressed€later€in€more€detail,Ïlays€out€the€basic€assumptions€about€the€international€system€and€the€major€actors€and€issues,Ïserving€as€a€guide€for€the€students€in€their€preparation.€€It€will€outline€the€issues€and€actors€in€theÏsimulation.€€(Examples€of€recent€scenarios€can€be€found€on€the€ICONS€website€atÏò òhttp://www.icons.umd.eduó ó.)Ð àx ÐÌStudents€should€then€begin€general€research€into€the€foreign€policy€of€the€nation€they€willÏrepresent.€€The€scenario€will€help€guide€the€students€in€terms€of€the€key€issues€to€be€addressed,Ïthe€major€actors,€and€the€current€policy€strategies.€€During€this€part€of€the€semester,€at€least€aÏportion€of€the€lectures€should€be€devoted€to€issues€in€foreign€policy€decision-making,€such€as€theÏrelative€impact€of€personality,€domestic,€economic,€and€international€factors€on€the€shaping€ofÏforeign€policy.ÌÌOnce€the€scenario€has€been€read€and€absorbed€by€the€students,€the€second€task€in€this€phase€is€theÏpreparation€of€a€position€paper.€€The€position€paper,€which€is€discussed€below,€is€meant€to€spellÏout€the€particular€country-teamððs€positions€on€the€issues€raised€in€the€scenario.€€Since€theÏscenario€is€set€approximately€six€months€int€he€future,€the€position€paper€will€have€to€deal€bothÏwith€the€status€of€the€countryððs€current€policy€as€well€as€its€proposed€policy€initiatives.€€It€isÐ ,¨%( Ðmeant€to€be€a€rough€policy€guide€for€the€team€during€the€course€of€the€exercise,€and€shouldÏremain€confidential.€€This€document€must€be€prepared€prior€to€the€start€of€the€exercise€itself.Ìà0  àÐ (#(# ÐA€third€aspect€of€the€preparatory€phase€is€the€question€of€organization€(again,€to€be€dealt€withÏbelow).€€By€organization,€we€mean€the€division€of€the€country-team€members€into€functionalÏspecializations,€so€as€to€optimize€the€personnel€at€hand.€€Thus,€after€some€common€readings€andÏgroup€discussions€at€the€beginning€of€the€semester,€the€team€members€will€divide€into€groups€onÏthe€basis€of€issues,€regions,€upcoming€negotiations,€etc.€€We€have€found€that€this€is€the€best€wayÏfor€students€to€utilize€the€limited€personnel€and€time€at€their€disposal,€during€both€the€preparationÏand€simulation€phases.ÌÌAnother€set€of€activities€to€be€undertaken€during€this€preparatory€phase€has€to€do€with€acquiringÏfamiliarity€with€accessing€the€World€Wide€Web€and€the€ICONSnet€system.€€While€none€of€this€isÏvery€difficult€in€and€of€itself,€and€many€students€may€arrive€in€the€course€with€considerableÏcomputer€skills,€it€pays€to€spend€some€time€on€this€so€that€all€students€are€functioning€at€anÏadequate€level€prior€to€the€beginning€of€the€exercise.ÌÌDuring€the€preparation€phase,€it€is€of€vital€importance€that€faculty€read€their€mail€on€the€facultyÏcommunication€system€at€least€once€a€week.€€ICONS€staff€will€use€the€ð ðfaculty€communityðð€toÐ Hà Ðalert€you€to€important€simulation€developments,€such€as€scenario€updates€and€conferenceÏschedules.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òSimulationó óÔ Ä‹ÔÐ   ÐBefore€the€simulation€begins,€the€students€should€have€had€adequate€opportunity€to€master€theÏissues€raised€in€the€scenario,€divide€themselves€up€into€functional€working€units,€prepare€a€ratherÏdetailed€position€paper,€and€familiarize€themselves€with€ICONSnet.ÌÌSeveral€distinct€types€of€communication€take€place€in€the€exercise.€€Messages€are€the€primaryÏform€of€communications,€either€bilateral€or€multilateral,€and€it€is€in€this€context€that€most€of€theÏbusiness€of€the€exercise€is€conducted.€€ÌÌIn€addition,€communiques€are€routinely€issued€by€country-teams€as€the€need€arises,€at€least€twiceÏper€week.€€These€are€meant€to€be€official€public€statements€of€policy€on€specific€issues,€and€areÏsent€to€all€other€country-teams€(unlike€regular€messages,€which€may€be€sent€to€a€more€restrictedÏgroup€of€countries).€€ÌÌReal-time€conferences€are€the€final€means€of€communication.€€While€issues€are€handled€throughÏthe€normal€message€flow,€there€is€usually€a€need€for€a€conference€to€hammer€out€details€of€aÏparticular€negotiation,€or€at€least€to€give€some€issues€a€public€airing.€€Thus,€conferences€mightÏtake€place€on€issues€like€arms€control,€international€development,€and€other€global€issues.€€€(AÏconference€schedule€is€distributed€to€participants€before€the€simulation€begins.€€It€is€not€possibleÐ è+€%( Ðto€schedule€conferences€to€coincide€with€class€times,€but€ICONS€does€take€vacation€schedulesÏinto€account.€€Further,€the€number€of€time€zones€spanned€by€a€given€simulation€may€complicateÏscheduling,€but€project€staff€tries€to€minimize€inconvenience€for€the€participating€teams.)ÌÌThe€simulation€is€administered€by€a€member€of€the€ICONS€staff.€€SIMCON€(Simulation€Control)Ïis€responsible€for€monitoring€all€messages€(providing€feedback€when€necessary),€chairing€allÏconferences,€and€managing€all€administrative€issues.€€SIMCON€keeps€in€touch€with€facultyÏmembers€so€that€they€can€work€together€to€enhance€the€studentsðð€educational€experience.€€(ForÏmore€information€about€SIMCONððs€role€in€the€simulation,€please€see€ò òUmpiringó ó€underÐ è € Ðò òImplementation€Issuesó ó€below.)Ð Øp  ÐÌAs€might€be€imagined,€while€the€faculty€involved€in€the€preparation€of€the€simulation€may€haveÏcertain€ideas€as€to€the€directions€various€issues€and€negotiations€will€take,€after€the€first€few€daysÏeach€exercise€takes€off€and€develops€a€character€of€its€own.€€It€is€this€evolution,€and€the€studentsððÏability€to€take€over€the€exercise€and€turn€it€in€unforeseen€directions,€which€makes€this€type€ofÏsimulation€such€a€powerful€and€effective€educational€tool.ÌÌSimulations€rarely€end€with€closure€on€any€particular€issue€or€problem.€€Students€at€both€the€highÏschool€and€college€levels€are€often€frustrated€that€closure€was€not€reached.€€They€must€be€madeÏto€understand€that€the€intent€is€not€to€resolve€all€issues,€but€rather€to€gain€a€better€appreciation€ofÏtheir€complexity,€and€of€the€difficulties€in€achieving€consensus€among€actors€with€drasticallyÏdivergent€world€views.€€Debriefing€is€vital€in€bringing€this€realization€to€light.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òDebriefing€and€Evaluationó óÔ  ˜ÔÐ ø ÐThe€debriefing€phase€is€of€critical€importance€to€the€overall€exercise.€€During€the€heat€of€theÏexercise,€it€is€often€easy€to€lose€sight€of€the€overall€process€in€which€the€students€areÏparticipating.€€During€this€final€stage,€faculty€and€students€have€an€opportunity€to€reflect€on€theirÏexperience€and€try€to€abstract€from€it€useful€pieces€of€information.€€It€is€at€this€point€that€theÏstudent€should€come€to€realize€that€it€was€not€the€information€about€a€specific€country€which€heÏor€she€gained€during€the€exercise,€although€that€was€probably€considerable,€but€rather€the€insightÏinto€the€process€itself€that€was€the€most€important€thing€to€take€away€from€the€experience.€€ThreeÏaspects€of€the€debriefing€phase€are€dealt€with€here:€evaluation,€group€discussion,€and€the€finalÏpaper.Ìà0  àÐ (#(# ÐWhile€a€formal,€written€evaluation€of€the€experience€is€not€absolutely€critical,€we€have€found€thatÏsome€form€of€evaluation€helps€to€tie€things€together,€to€focus€upon€the€successes€of€theÏexperience,€as€well€as€to€point€out€areas€in€which€changes€and€improvements€must€be€made.€€InÏcombination€with€a€pretest,€such€an€evaluation€can€also€serve€the€purpose€of€demonstrating€areasÏin€which€studentsðð€perspectives€on€their€own€country€as€well€as€the€rest€of€the€world€haveÏchanged€as€a€result€of€this€experience.€€(Contact€ICONS€for€a€sample€evaluation€form.)Ìà0  àà0` (#(#àÐè+€%(` (#` (# ÐWe€have€also€found€that€group€discussion€is€effective€in€highlighting€key€issues.€€During€theÏcourse€of€such€sessions,€the€faculty€facilitator€might€try€to€focus€the€discussion€on€certain€keyÏissues€or€processes€and€to€draw€students€out€on€their€experiences€more€generally.€€In€a€debriefing,Ïthe€facilitator€will€help€the€students€to€evaluate€what€they€have€learned€through€participation€and€Ïrelate€these€experiences€to€the€ð ðreal€worldðð.€€€The€ò òAppendixó ó€contains€a€suggested€list€ofÐ ( À Ðdebriefing€questions€that€we€have€used€successfully€at€the€University€of€Maryland.ÌÌFinally,€we€recommend€that€students€be€asked€to€write€brief€papers€as€a€way€of€concluding€theÏexercise.€€To€facilitate€various€types€of€analytic€exercises,€the€entire€simulation€communityÏdatabase€is€opened€to€all€country-teams,€so€that€they€can€read€each€otherððs€mail,€and€generallyÏsleuth€around€in€the€system.€€They€can€do€systematic€retrieval€of€messages€by€keywords€orÏsubject.€€Thus,€they€may€want€to€write€a€paper€on€the€different€ways€they€approached€issues,€theÏcharacteristics€of€crisis€decision€making,€and€the€like.€€In€addition,€the€students€can€also€be€askedÏat€this€point€to€apply€some€of€the€principles€of€foreign€policy€and€international€politics€that€wereÏthe€subject€of€early€lectures€to€the€actual€processes€they€observed€in€the€simulation:€how€did€theÏprinciples€and€simulation€experience€differ,€was€the€simulation€perhaps€too€simplistic€orÏinaccurate,€or€are€some€of€the€theories€and€principles€in€need€of€modification?Ô‡XMXXXú®ÔÐ h ÐÔ#†Xú®XXXM ¤#ÔÌÌÔ  ÔÔ‡¼Ž„»XXú®Ôò òImplementation€Issuesó óÔ#†Xú®X»¼Ž„p¤#ÔÔ c¤ÔÐ 8Ð ÐÌÔ  Ôò òCountry-Team€Rolesó óÔ ô¤ÔÐ @Ø ÐTypically,€when€one€thinks€of€simulation€and€gaming€exercises,€one€has€images€of€the€modelÏUnited€Nations€or€of€mock€legislatures,€in€which€students€engage€in€role€playing.€€In€the€ICONSÏsimulation€exercises,€a€more€analytic,€if€possibly€less€dramatic,€mode€of€participation€isÏencouraged.€€Stylistic€mimicry€is€discouraged€because€it€tends€to€perpetuate€stereotypicalÏperceptions€of€foreign€policy€behavior.ÌÌWhat€is€important€is€for€students€to€think€about€the€situations€posed€by€the€scenario€andÏdevelopments€within€the€simulation€from€the€point€of€view€of€the€nation€they€represent€in€theÏexercise.€€The€aim€of€the€simulation€is€to€produce€good€analysts,€not€good€actors,€by€encouragingÏstudents€to€evaluate€foreign€policy€in€the€following€manner:€€ð ðIf€I€were€making€foreign€policyÐ  #8 Ðdecisions€for€nation€X,€and€if€a€particular€situation€occurred,€then€I€would€have€to€take€theÏfollowing€considerations€into€account.€.€.;€I€would€conclude€that€such€and€such€a€course€of€actionÏis€the€most€desirable.ððÐ p& " ÐÌConsistent€with€this€approach,€the€participant€is€asked€to€view€his€or€her€role€as€being€analogousÏto€the€kinds€of€high-level€advisors€and€staff€that€are€found€in€most€foreign€ministries€or€otherÏforeign€policy€making€structures.€€Two€sets€of€activities€are€involved:€1)€policy€planning€andÏanalysis,€and€2)€policy€implementation€and€operations.€€For€this€reason,€students€are€encouragedÏfrom€the€very€beginning€of€the€semester€to€consult€a€variety€of€general€economic,€political,€andÐ ,¨%( Ðmilitary€sources€so€that€by€the€time€the€simulation€begins,€they€will€have€developed€a€soundÏresearch€content€for€their€policy€decisions.€€The€participant€wears€a€ð ðplannerððs€hatðð€prior€to€theÐ Xð Ðbeginning€of€the€exercise,€and€€focuses€his€or€her€attention€on€the€creation€of€the€ð ðposition€paper.ðð€Ð Hà ÐÌOnce€the€simulation€has€begun,€the€participant€functions€as€a€policy€implementer,€that€is,€oneÏwho€works€in€day-to-day€operations,€initiating€and€responding€to€situations€within€the€policyÏguidelines€set€down€in€the€position€paper.€€This€distinction€parallels€the€classic€ð ðstaff-lineððÐ    Ðdistinction€in€administrative€agencies.€€In€practice,€it€is€bound€to€become€blurred:€manyÏstatements€of€policy€cannot€be€implemented€in€concrete€situations,€and€many€concrete€situationsÏemerge€for€which€there€are€no€existing€policy€guidelines.€€Nonetheless,€it€will€be€instructive€forÏthe€participant€to€develop€an€awareness€of€the€two€different€functions€the€team€must€perform€asÏthe€exercise€unfolds.ÌÌGiven€this€conception€of€the€role€of€country-teams,€certain€assumptions€must€be€made€aboutÏdecision-making€and€societal€factors€in€the€various€countries€being€played€in€the€exercise.€€ForÏexample,€although€country-teams€do€not€directly€represent€internal€elements€of€their€nations,€e.g.,Ïlegislatures,€public€opinion,€and€the€like,€decisions€made€by€students€should€be€assumed€to€haveÏmet€domestic€policy€constraints.€€To€this€end,€we€think€it€is€useful€to€have€a€country-teamÏmember€specialize€in€domestic€politics.€€This€person€generally€will€have€an€overview€of€allÏaspects€of€the€country-teamððs€policies,€and€will€be€able€to€veto€decisions€that€are€not€feasibleÏwithin€a€domestic€context.ÌÌStudent€participants€are€often€a€bit€confused€as€to€how€much€freedom€they€have€in€developingÏtheir€nationððs€foreign€policies.€€For€example,€must€the€U.S.€team€strictly€adhere€to€the€policies€setÏforth€by€the€current€administration?€€Or€is€the€U.S.€team€allowed€to€diverge€from€those€policies?€ÏIn€response€to€these€questions,€we€generally€respond€that€each€country-team€must€maintain€aÏcertain€degree€of€accuracy€so€that€others€in€the€simulation€can€expect€a€minimal€level€of€realism.€ÏAll€students€will€have€researched€the€positions€of€their€negotiating€partners€and€they€should€beÏable€to€expect€realistic€positions€from€the€other€teams.€€Still,€the€simulation€seeks€a€degree€ofÏcreativity€in€developing€solution€to€the€issues€that€might€diverge€from€policies€the€countries€haveÏpursued€to€date.ÌÌUltimately,€the€policies€and€strategies€developed€by€the€team€are€subject€to€review€by€either€theÏlocal€instructor€or€simulation€control€or€both.€€The€teamððs€policies€and€strategies€should€beÏconstrued€as€recommendations€which€will€generally€be€translated€directly€into€actions€by€theÏteams,€but€which,€on€occasion,€may€not€be€accepted€as€is.€€This€review€function€is€not€intended€toÏthwart€the€teamððs€initiatives.€€Rather,€it€is€a€means€for€the€instructor€and/or€simulation€control€toÏencourage€students€to€concentrate€on€certain€problems,€to€assure€that€the€game€as€a€wholeÏmaintains€focus,€and€to€prevent€a€team€from€becoming€entangled€in€tangential€issues.€€The€extentÏto€which€the€review€function€is€exercised€by€either€a€local€instructor€or€simulation€control€variesÏfrom€exercise€to€exercise,€depending€upon€the€focus,€objectives,€and€level€of€participants.Ð è+€%( Ð‡Ô  Ôò òTeam€Organizationó óÔ Ô¸ÔÐ h ÐICONS€simulation€interaction€requires€that€each€team€provide€input€and€output€in€the€exercise.€ÏHow€the€team€organizes€itself€to€provide€that€input€and€output€is€up€to€each€campus€group€toÏdecide.€€In€the€past,€some€teams€have€operated€as€informal€small€groups,€involving€little€or€noÏdivision€of€labor€and€structuring€of€authority€and€responsibility.€€Other€teams€have€been€highlyÏstructured€internally.€€Generally,€some€structure€has€seemed€to€work€better€than€completeÏinformality.€€A€few€suggestions€are€listed€below.Ìò òÌDivision€of€Laboró ó:€€Typically,€one€or€more€students€will€specialize€in€either€a€particularÐ è € Ðgeographic€area€covered€in€the€scenario€(for€example,€European€specialist(s)€on€the€ChineseÏteam)€or€a€functional€area€(such€as,€trade€or€global€environmental€policy).€€There€have€also€beenÏrelational€specialties:€€for€example,€U.S.€team€specialists€on€Sino-Russian€relations.€€A€note€ofÏcaution€is€in€order,€however.€€If€all€of€the€members€of€a€team€have€specialized€foci,€somethingÏakin€to€ð ðthe€five€blind€men€and€the€elephant€problemðð€is€likely€to€arise.€€ð ðEach€individual€mayÐ ˜0  Ðbecome€quite€familiar€with€his€or€her€part€of€the€elephant€but€no€one€person€will€know€what€theÏwhole€elephant€looks€like.ðð€€We€have€experimented€with€a€ð ðgeneralistðð€role€on€some€teams.€€ThisÐ x Ðposition€is€useful,€but€it€tends€to€create€a€new€problem:€€the€generalist€often€does€less€substantiveÏresearch€than€do€the€specialists€on€the€team.€€The€generalists€also€tend€to€rely€more€on€intuitionÏthan€on€acquired€knowledge€of€the€nationððs€foreign€policy.€€Particularly€when€the€team€isÏrepresenting€a€country€that€is€not€its€own,€this€development€runs€counter€to€the€goal€of€buildingÏsome€sort€of€intercultural€awareness.ÌÌA€second€strategy€for€dealing€with€the€part/whole€elephant€problem€is€to€require€that€allÏparticipants€on€a€team€read€the€same€general€foreign€policy€material€about€their€nations€prior€toÏbeginning€their€research€on€the€specialized€area.€€This€strategy€has€proven€successful,€in€partÏbecause€it€provides€a€firmer€base€upon€which€to€begin€individual€research.€€It€gives€individuals€aÏrecognizable€context€to€contemplate€specialized€portions€of€a€nationððs€foreign€policy€and€alsoÏresults€in€a€more€coherent€end€product,€in€the€form€of€the€position€paper.Ìò òÌInternal€Conflict€Resolutionó ó:€€Another€problem€of€team€organization€may€also€arise:€€that€ofÐ ˜!0 Ðinternal€conflict€resolution.€€It€is€to€be€expected€that€a€group€of€specialists€trying€to€arrive€at€aÏsingle€policy€line€for€a€particular€problem€may€have€substantial€differences€of€opinion.€€The€moreÏinvolved€they€become,€the€more€they€might€be€inclined€to€fight€for€their€positions.€€Impasses€areÏnot€uncommon.€€To€handle€such€situations,€we€recommend€the€following€strategies.€€First,€a€teamÏshould€be€encouraged€to€establish€early€on€in€its€preparation€period€some€form€of€decision€ruleÏfor€such€instances.€€Most€teams€end€up€using€either€majority€rule€or€consensus€for€general€issuesÏthat€are€important€enough€to€require€consideration€by€the€whole€team.€€For€more€minor€decisions,Ïteams€often€require€that€at€least€two€or€three€others€on€the€team€outside€the€area€of€specializationÏrelating€to€the€decision€approve€the€item€before€it€can€become€part€of€the€teamððs€foreign€policy.€ÏGenerally,€establishment€of€such€rules€at€the€start€of€a€teamððs€decision-making€process€willÏeliminate€most€of€the€major€conflicts€that€arise€within€teams.Ð è+€%( ЇNonetheless,€there€are€occasionally€times€when€even€the€use€of€the€above€approaches€does€notÏresolve€internal€team€conflict.€€In€these€instances€a€teamððs€facilitator€should€have€the€authority€toÏarbitrate€the€dispute.€€Simulation€control€(SIMCON)€can€be€called€in€by€the€facilitator€to€aid€inÏthe€arbitration€if€needed.€€Such€conflicts,€if€used€by€the€facilitator€effectively,€can€provideÏworthwhile€illustrations€of€the€domestic€policy€process€and€thus€be€handled€thoughtfully.€€It€isÏessential€that€conflicting€parties€be€required€to€give€a€thorough€rationale€for€their€policy€choice.€ÏThe€facilitator€can€then€help€the€students€to€evaluate€more€effectively€the€costs€and€benefits€ofÏthe€various€options.€€It€is€more€important€that€the€students€become€good€policy€evaluators€than€itÏis€for€one€party€in€the€conflict€to€feel€that€he€or€she€has€won€and€the€other€has€lost.Ìò òÌTeam€Assignmentsó ó:€€Those€institutions€fielding€more€than€one€country-team€in€any€individualÐ È`  Ðsimulation€have€an€additional€problem€at€the€very€start€of€the€course:€€how€to€assign€students€to€aÏparticular€country-team.€€Not€surprisingly,€students€invariably€clamor€to€represent€a€country€theyÏperceive€to€be€powerful,€and€it€is€sometimes€difficult€to€coax€students€to€join€country-teamsÏabout€which€they€know€very€little€at€the€start.€€To€help€resolve€such€questions,€an€experienceÏsurvey€can€be€used€as€a€basis€for€assigning€students€to€country-teams.€€For€example,€if€a€studentÏresponds€that€he€has€completed€a€course€in€economic€development,€he€might€be€placed€on€aÏlesser€developed€country;€similarly,€if€a€student€has€taken€a€course€in€Chinese€foreign€policy€sheÏmight€be€assigned€to€the€Chinese€team,€on€the€assumption€that€such€background€would€be€moreÏlikely€to€produce€reasoned€rather€than€merely€chauvinistic€positions€on€the€issues€raised€in€theÏcourse€of€the€simulation.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òDecision-Making€Proceduresó óÔ UÎÔÐ   ÐGeneral€team€meetings€have€proven€most€useful.€€They€are€usually€held€once€or€twice€a€weekÏduring€the€preparation€period€and€three€to€five€times€a€week€during€the€simulation€period.€€It€isÏrecommended€that€an€agenda€be€followed€in€these€meetings€in€order€to€prevent€the€meetingsÏfrom€turning€into€ð ðbull€sessions.ðð€€It€is€also€recommended€that€someone€perform€the€role€ofÐ È` Ðchairperson€of€these€meetings.€€It€is€most€beneficial€for€the€facilitator€to€take€this€role€during€aÏteamððs€preliminary€meetings.€€A€team€member€should€take€over€this€role€once€the€team€hasÏprogressed€to€a€point€of€solid€organization€and€has€a€substantive€knowledge€base€from€which€toÏwork.€€This€generally€happens€a€few€weeks€before€the€start€of€the€simulation.€€It€is€suggested€thatÏthe€instructor€attend€at€least€some€of€the€meetings€that€he€or€she€does€not€chair.ÌÌAfter€the€team€is€organized,€at€least€four€functions€can€usefully€be€served€by€these€general€teamÏmeetings.€€First,€an€overall€position€paper€must€be€assembled€at€the€outset€which:€€a)€identifies€aÏplausible€set€of€broad€foreign€policy€goals€for€the€country€in€the€simulation€time€period;€b)Ïrelates€the€situation€in€the€scenario€to€these€goals,€identifying€the€central€issues;€and€c)€chartsÏguidelines€for€obtaining€these€objectives.€€More€detailed€suggestions€for€preparation€of€the€teamÏposition€paper€are€discussed€below.€€Second,€once€the€exercise€has€begun,€the€general€meetingsÏserve€to€assure€that€the€various€specialists€will€be€exposed€to€each€otherððs€ideas€and€provide€aÏforum€for€coordination€and€integration.€€The€educational€values€of€this€aspect€of€the€generalÐ è+€%( Ðmeetings€are€particularly€important.€€Third,€the€general€meetings€also€provide€an€opportunity€forÏthe€whole€team€to€review€the€actions€that€various€team€members€have€taken€since€the€lastÏmeeting.€€Finally,€these€general€meetings€will€also€enable€the€team€as€a€whole€to€revise€andÏdesign€new€policy€guidelines€--€to€update€the€position€paper€--€as€the€situation€unfolds€throughoutÏthe€exercise,€especially€in€response€to€updates€of€the€scenario€(which€will€be€issued€by€simulationÏcontrol€from€time€to€time).€€In€summary,€then,€the€general€meetings€serve€as€a€forum€forÏreiterative€cycles€of€planning-coordination-review-revision.Ìò òÌAd€Hoc€Meetings:ó ó€€Both€during€the€pre-simulation€planning€and€throughout€the€exercise,€ad€hocÐ è € Ðmeetings€of€subsets€of€the€team€have€also€proven€essential€for€good€policy€integration€andÏcoordination.€€These€may€involve€relevant€subgroups€within€the€team,€depending€on€theÏparticular€question(s)€that€arise.€€The€participants€may€fall€within€one€specialized€area€or€theyÏmay€cut€across€specialties:€€for€example,€a€meeting€between€an€economic€policy€specialist€and€aÏChinese€policy€specialist€on€the€Japanese€team.ÌÌThe€need€for€an€ad€hoc€meeting€may€arise€at€any€time,€for€example,€when€a€Middle€EastÏspecialist,€who€is€retrieving€messages,€receives€a€communique€which€requires€quick€action€on€aÏmatter€dealing€with€debt€restructuring.€€The€appropriate€people€will€have€to€be€consulted,€perhapsÏin€an€ad€hoc€meeting,€perhaps€by€e„mail€or€telephone.€€In€this€regard,€it€is€helpful€to€post€a€list€ofÏeach€memberððs€e„mail€address€and€phone€number€and€distribute€it€among€team€members.€Ìò òÌMonitoring€Message€Trafficó ó:€It€is€vital€that€the€team€makes€sure€that€it€keeps€up€withÐ ° Ðcommunications€on€a€regular€basis.€€This€means€that€at€least€one€person€from€the€team€must€loginÏto€the€simulation€community€each€day€during€the€simulation€period€to€receive€any€messagesÏaddressed€to€the€team.€€ÌÌMost€groups€have€found€it€convenient€to€distribute€this€workload€by€scheduling€particularÏstudents€to€log€in€at€specific€times.€€(In€practice€though,€as€more€and€more€students€have€easyÏaccess€to€a€computer,€we€find€that€many€team€members€log€in€to€read€and€send€messages€on€aÏdaily€basis.)€€The€person(s)€checking€messages€may€simply€direct€incoming€information€to€theÏappropriate€team€specialists€and€enter€into€the€system€outgoing€messages€which€have€beenÏprepared€by€others€prior€to€the€scheduled€period.€€(Again,€though,€it€is€increasingly€common€forÏeach€person€or€sub„group€to€send€the€messages€that€they€themselves€have€prepared.)€€In€someÏcases,€the€person€checking€the€message€may€have€to€make€a€direct€response€to€another€country€onÏan€issue€other€than€the€one€he€or€she€specializes€--€all€the€more€reason€for€each€participant€to€beÏthoroughly€familiar€with€the€policy€guidelines€developed€by€the€group€as€a€whole.€€Another€noteÏof€caution:€€experience€teaches€that€a€balance€between€individual€initiative€and€coordination€withÏoneððs€teammates€is€essential€to€a€smoothly€functioning€team.€€The€literature€on€foreign€policyÏdecision€making€illustrates€that€this€problem€is€encountered,€not€only€in€gaming€exercises,€but€inÏactual€foreign€offices.ÌÐ è+€%( ÐIn€a€simulation€community,€the€entire€team€logs€in€using€the€same€username€and€password.€ÏICONSnet€was€designed€to€facilitate€an€entire€team€sharing€an€account.€€When€a€student€logs€in,Ïhe€or€she€may€choose€to€read€all€new€messages,€selected€new€messages,€or€new€messagesÏassociated€with€a€particular€simulation€issue.€€After€reading€the€message,€the€student€can€chooseÏwhether€to€keep€the€message€on€the€list€of€new€messages€for€other€team€members€to€see€or€toÏsend€it€to€the€archives€for€later€access.€€(ICONSnet€allows€participants€to€search€the€archives€toÏfind€messages€according€to€a€number€of€parameters,€including€message€number,€date,€send,Ïrecipient,€and€issue.)ÌÌÔ  Ôò òScenarioó óÔ €äÔÐ Øp  ÐThe€heart€of€any€simulation€exercise,€be€it€in€a€simple€small-group€setting€or€an€elaborateÏmultiple€participant,€multi-location€exercise€such€as€ICONS,€is€the€simulation€scenario.€Ï(Examples€from€past€semesters€are€available€from€the€ICONS€website.)€€The€scenario€sets€theÏstage€for€the€interactions€that€will€take€place€both€within€and€among€teams.€€It€defines€the€issues,Ïthe€central€actors,€and€the€time-frame€within€which€the€exercise€will€be€played€out.€€ScenariosÏvary€in€their€complexity,€ranging€from€very€detailed€ð ðhistoricalðð€settings€to€simpleÐ x Ðdecision-making€situations.€€Participant€roles€may€be€explicitly€defined€or€left€vague.€€TheseÏdifferences€in€approach€are€decided€upon€by€the€simulation€coordinators€and€depend€upon€theÏissues€involved€and€the€focus€of€the€various€curricula€into€which€the€simulation€is€incorporated.Ìà0  àÐ (#(# ÐThe€ICONS€scenarios€have€been€developed€with€an€eye€toward€creating€unavoidable€issues€withÏwhich€the€simulation€participants€must€grapple.€€Typically,€the€scenario€is€set€at€some€point€inÏthe€not€too€distant€future,€to€prevent€students€from€taking€their€moves€out€of€the€daily€newspaper,Ïwhile€at€the€same€time€not€allowing€them€to€stray€too€far€from€the€reality€of€their€country-teamsððÏpast€and€present€foreign€policies.ÌÌThe€goal€has€been€to€make€the€simulation€scenarios€as€realistic€as€possible,€while€at€the€sameÏtime€injecting€them€with€sufficient€urgency€to€keep€all€participating€units€on€their€toes€and€active.€ÏThe€simulation€exercise€is€designed€to€take€on€an€identity€of€its€own,€and€while€the€scenario€is€aÏconvenient€starting€point,€developments€will€often€leave€it€behind.€€A€well-designed€scenarioÏquite€frequently€pushes€the€simulation€beyond€the€critical€issues€it€initially€establishes.ÌÌThe€scenario€can€be€single€or€multiple-issue€in€scope,€depending€upon€the€pedagogical€needs€ofÏthe€instructors€involved€and€the€resources€available€to€participants€and€faculty.€€In€the€past€mostÏof€the€exercises€have€been€four€to€five€week€multiple-issue€exercises€addressing€topics€rangingÏfrom€arms€control€to€Third€World€development€to€specific€regional€tensions.€€However,€for€theÏpast€few€years,€we€have€been€conducting€more€narrowly€focused€regionally„based€simulations,Ïlasting€three€weeks.€These€exercises€and€their€scenarios€allowed€an€in-depth€exploration€of€theÏparticular€issues€involved.€€Thus,€while€not€providing€as€clear€an€image€of€the€whole€picture€ofÏinternational€relations,€participants€in€the€mini-simulations€were€able€to€get€a€firmer€grasp€of€theÏdynamics€within€the€scope€of€their€exercise.Ð è+€%( ЇAs€mentioned€above,€the€ICONS€simulation€places€the€international€system€at€some€point€in€theÏfuture,€and€then€proceeds€to€simulate€the€daily€interchange€of€messages€and€communiques€amongÏthe€participants,€over€a€three€to€five€week€period.€€As€a€consequence,€one€should€not€expectÏdramatic€developments€on€all€fronts€during€the€course€of€the€exercise.€€After€all,€how€manyÏdramatic€events€take€place€during€a€typical€four-to-five-week€period€of€diplomatic€history?€ÏStudents€should€be€constantly€reminded,€particularly€if€they€become€disturbed€at€the€slow€pace€atÏwhich€events€unfold,€that€this€is€not€a€game€to€be€won€or€lost.€€Rather,€like€the€system€itÏsimulates,€it€is€an€ongoing€process,€and€few€issues€or€problems€will€be€resolved€during€a€typicalÏsimulation€exercise.€€ÌÌUnder€ideal€circumstances,€the€scenario€for€an€ICONS€simulation€should€be€available€forÏdistribution€to€students€at€the€beginning€of€the€semester€or€trimester.€€Students€should€also€beÏassigned€to€country-teams€at€that€time,€so€that€they€can€begin€the€process€of€familiarization€withÏthe€issues€facing€the€international€system€in€general,€and€their€country€in€particular.€€(ICONS€hasÏput€together€an€on„line€research€library€at€ò òhttp://www.icons.umd.edu/reslib/ó ó€to€help€studentsÐ ˆ  Ðwith€their€research.)€€These€issues€will€also€help€determine€the€appropriate€functional€andÏregional€divisions€for€the€teams€as€they€attempt€to€form€themselves€into€efficientÏdecision-making€units.€€ÌÌÔ  Ôò òPosition€Papersó óÔ æôÔÐ 8Ð ÐEach€country-team€is€expected€to€prepare€a€position€paper€prior€to€the€start€of€the€exercise.€€AÏcopy€of€the€position€paper€may€be€submitted€to€Simulation€Control€(SIMCON)€for€review€beforeÏthe€beginning€date€for€the€exercise.€€(See€the€ò òUmpiringó ó€section€below.)€€Position€papers€are€notÐ   Ðcirculated€among€the€country-teams,€and€should€be€kept€confidential€by€all€team€members.ÌÌAs€an€initial€statement€of€the€country-teamððs€posture€and€plans,€the€position€paper€is€used€as€aÏbasis€for€evaluating€the€teamððs€subsequent€moves.€€In€this€vein,€SIMCON€or€the€facilitator€mayÏattempt€to€apply€a€coherence€criterion:€€how€does€a€given€action€or€message€sent€by€a€particularÏteam€relate€to€the€issues€spelled€out€in€the€position€paper?€€If€this€relationship€is€not€readilyÏapparent,€SIMCON€or€the€facilitator€may€ask€for€an€explanation€from€the€team€before€theÏcommunication€is€allowed€to€proceed.€€This€may€call€for€a€simple€clarification;€it€may€lead€to€theÏidentification€of€gaps€in€the€initial€plan€and€team€analysis;€or€it€may€involve€the€identification€ofÏnew€issues€that€have€arisen€in€the€course€of€the€exercise.€€When€the€exercise€is€over,€the€positionÏpaper€can€be€used€by€the€facilitator€to€evaluate€the€participation€of€the€students€in€the€exercise.€€ItÏwill€help€to€tell€where€the€team€diverged€from€the€policies€stated€in€the€paper€and€also€where€theÏpaper€may€have€originally€addressed€the€issues€involved€inadequately.€€These€instances€can€beÏquite€useful€in€the€debriefing€and€discussion€sessions€after€the€exercise€is€finished.ò òÐ ((À!$ ÐÌPosition€Paper€Guidelines:ó ó€The€facilitator€may€specify€what€is€to€be€included€in€the€positionÐ * #& Ðpaper€or€the€team€may€wish€to€use€the€following€set€of€queries€as€rough€guidelines.€€In€eitherÏcase,€the€position€paper€should€be€the€focus€of€a€great€deal€of€attention€by€the€students.€€It€shouldÐ è+€%( Ðbe€the€body€of€analysis€and€foreign€policy€evaluation€that€each€country-team€produces€and€usesÏduring€the€exercise.€€The€following€set€of€questions€provides€one€approach€to€the€creation€of€theÏpaper,€and€are€intended€to€be€suggestive€but€not€restrictive.€€(A€more€complete€position€paperÏoutline€is€available€in€the€ò òAppendixó ó.)Ð 8 Ð ÐÌò òà  àThe€Situation€in€the€Real€Worldó óÐ  ° Ðà  àððà0 ` àWhat€are€the€major€foreign€policy€problems€confronting€the€nation€your€teamÐ    Ðrepresents?€€Pay€special€attention€to€your€countryððs€relations€with€the€countriesÏlisted€as€ð ðparticipating€teamsðð.Ðè €` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àWith€respect€to€each€of€the€problem€areas€identified€above,€what€have€been€yourÐ È`  Ðnationððs€basic€interests€and€goals?€€(This€item€is€intended€to€get€at€the€nationððsÏbroad,€long-range€goals).Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àIn€the€recent€past,€what€approaches€has€your€country€used€in€pursuit€of€theseÐ ˆ  Ðgoals?€€(This€item€is€intended€to€get€at€the€nationððs€intermediate-range€goals).Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àWhat€diplomatic€and/or€military€strategies€have€been€employed€in€pursuit€of€theÐ Xð Ðabove€listed€intermediate-range€goals?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌò òà0  àThe€Situation€for€the€Simulation€as€Presented€in€the€Scenarioó óÐ(À(#(# Ðà0  àððà0` (#(#àWhat€situations€and€problems€facing€your€country€suggest€a€need€to€reform€yourÐ ° Ðcountryððs€basic€objectives?€€Intermediate-range€goals?€€Diplomatic€and/or€militaryÏstrategies?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àWhat€specific€actions€or€policies€would€result€in€the€best€solutions€for€yourÐ Øp Ðnation?€€What€actions€are€€feasible?€€Which€are€recommended?€€On€what€timeÏschedule?€€Any€follow-up€actions?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àWhat€responses€do€you€expect€your€contemplated€actions€to€elicit€from€otherÐ ˜!0 Ðparties?€€What,€if€any,€should€be€your€nationððs€counter€responses?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àWhat€do€you€expect€to€be€the€policy€objectives€of€other€nations?€€How€mightÐ h$  Ðthese€objectives€complement€or€run€counter€to€your€own?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àFor€each€anticipated€action€by€others,€what€response(s)€by€the€nation€youÐ 8'Ð # Ðrepresent€would€be€most€appropriate?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌUltimately,€the€position€paper€is€central€to€the€functioning€of€the€exercise€and€its€educationalÏpurposes.€€It€can€serve€as€a€vehicle€for€familiarizing€the€students€with€the€current€internalÏsituation€of€the€country€in€question,€as€well€as€acquainting€him€or€her€with€its€current€foreignÐ è+€%( Ðpolicy€and€historical€background.€€The€position€paper€is€also€a€planning€and€analytic€document.€ÏIt€encourages€the€student€to€do€some€hard-headed€thinking€about€international€relations€--€toÏattempt€to€identify€future€trends€in€the€international€system,€to€assume€a€perspective€on€worldÏaffairs€that€differs€from€their€peers,€to€confront€some€of€the€complexities€involved€in€translatingÏaspirations€into€viable€policy€options,€and€to€realize€the€difficulty€of€implementing€even€theÏbest-laid€plans€in€a€complex€international€environment.€€€€We€urge€all€participants€to€devote€asÏmuch€thought€and€energy€to€the€position€paper€as€time€allows.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òCommunication€Proceduresó óÔ ­ ÔÐ è € ÐA€separate€discussion€of€the€procedures€for€using€the€ICONSnet€system€is€available€on„line€atÏò òhttp://www.icons.umd.edu/help/ó ó.€In€this€section,€some€of€the€general€features€of€this€systemÐ È`  Ðwill€be€discussed,€and€some€common€problems€examined.ÌÌAll€country-teams€perform€two€main€communication€functions,€reading€new€messages€andÏsending€messages.€€Students€should€choose€ð ðRead€New€Messagesðð€to€retrieve€all€messages€andÐ ˆ  Ðcommuniques€that€have€accumulated€for€the€country-team€since€the€last€time€a€team€memberÏsigned€on.€€This€should€be€done€by€a€designated€team€member€on€a€regular€basis,€although€allÏteam€members€should€be€encouraged€to€log€in€and€read€messages€at€convenient€times.€€€IncomingÏmessages€are€generally€in€English€(from€English€speaking€country-teams),€although€they€may€beÏin€other€languages,€depending€on€the€particular€simulation.€€(Translations€of€foreign€languageÏmessages€are€provided€by€language€teams.€€See€the€ò òForeign€Languageó ó€section€below€for€moreÐ (À Ðinformation€on€translation€procedures.)€ÌÌUsing€the€ð ðSendðð€function,€country-teams€can€send€messages€and€communiques.€€The€sender€canÐ ø Ðspecify€the€recipients,€and€must€classify€the€message€under€at€least€one€of€the€simulation€issueÏareas.€€Several€types€of€messages€are€sent€by€country-teams€during€the€course€of€the€simulation.€ÏThese€can€roughly€be€classified€as€inter„country€exchanges,€communiques,€and€conferences.Ìò òÌInter„country€Exchangesó ó:€€Inter„country€exchanges€are€messages€sent€from€one€team€to€another,Ð ¨ @ Ðdealing€with€a€topic€of€mutual€interest.€€Such€messages€may€be€addressed€to€a€single€countryÏ(bilateral),€to€a€number€of€countries€(multilateral),€or€indeed€to€the€entire€set€of€countries€in€theÏexercise.€€Along€with€the€normal€diplomatic€exchanges€among€the€nations,€draft€treaties,Ïinternational€agreements,€and€the€statements€of€positions€can€also€be€transmitted€in€this€mode.ÌÌTo€illustrate€this€mode€of€communication,€a€recent€ICONS€simulation€involving€fourteenÏuniversities€generated€about€2,500€inter„country€communications€during€a€five-week€period.€ÏAmong€the€issues€dealt€with€were€global€warming,€the€AIDS€crisis,€nuclear€proliferation,€andÏLDC€development.Ìò òÌCommuniquesó ó:€Communiques€are€intended€to€serve€as€statements€of€official€positions€on€theÐ ø*$' Ðrange€of€issues€facing€individual€country-teams,€and€are€sent€to€all€participants.€€They€can€also€beÐ è+€%( Ðused€by€countries€to€publicize€information€they€feel€should€be€available€to€all€countries€for€anyÏnumber€of€reasons.€€Each€country-team€should€issue€at€least€two€of€these€per€week€during€theÏexercise.€ò òÐ Hà ÐÌConferences:€€ó óFace-to-face€conferences€are€not€possible€in€an€ICONS€simulation€owing€to€theÐ ( À Ðgeographical€constraints€imposed€by€the€variety€of€institutions€participating.€€However,€theÏICONS€system€does€facilitate€real„time€computer€conferences€to€assure€that€each€issue€isÏthoroughly€explored.€ÌÌThe€system€can€support€a€real-time€conference€involving€a€number€of€participants€from€diverseÏlocations.€€All€will€be€signed€on€simultaneously,€with€messages€(in€English)€immediatelyÏtransmitted€to€all€other€members€of€the€conference.€€Usually€several€conferences€of€a€generalÏnature€are€established€before€the€start€of€an€exercise€and€are€listed€in€the€scenario.€€In€the€pastÏthese€conferences€have€included€arms€control,€international€trade,€and€human€rights,€amongÏothers.€€Other,€more€narrowly€focused,€conferences€can€be€established€as€the€exercise€progressesÏand€participants€feel€that€there€is€a€need€for€one.€€Such€requests€are€submitted€to€SIMCON€forÏapproval.€€Such€requests€should€specifically€address€why€communications€cannot€beÏaccomplished€through€the€normal€message€flow.€€One€such€conference€in€a€past€simulation€was€aÏbilateral€conference€between€Japan€and€Mexico€to€finalize€the€details€of€a€trade€agreement.€€TheÏgroundwork€for€such€a€conference€would€have€been€prepared€through€inter„country€exchanges.€ÏOver€the€normal€message€system,€discussion€of€the€details€of€a€trade€agreement€would€have€takenÏa€great€deal€more€time€and€was€greatly€facilitated€by€these€simulated€face-to-face€negotiations.ÌÌGiven€the€number€of€conferences€in€a€simulation€and€the€fact€that€these€will€usually€not€fallÏduring€your€class€time,€it€is€probably€not€advisable€to€require€students€to€attend€all€of€theÏconferences.€€In€general,€it€makes€sense€to€require€students€to€attend€conferences€on€issues€inÏwhich€they€are€the€team€specialists,€and€maybe€one€or€two€others€to€foster€sub„groupÏcommunication.€€If€a€specialist€cannot€be€present€for€a€conference€for€which€he€or€she€has€beenÏconducting€ð ðregular€mailðð€negotiations,€he€or€she€should€be€responsible€for€finding€and€briefingÐ ¨ @ Ðsomeone€else€on€the€team€to€adequately€cover€the€conference.ÌÌExperience€has€shown€that€conference€agendas€are€an€integral€part€of€the€success€of€conferences.€ÏWithout€agendas€for€discussion€in€conferences,€most€sessions€move€very€slowly€and€accomplishÏlittle.€€SIMCON€provides€detailed€agendas€for€each€pre„established€conference€at€the€beginningÏof€the€simulation.€€Additional€topics€and€proposals€will€be€added€to€the€conference€agendas€as€theÏsimulation€unfolds.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òForeign€Languageó óÔ àÔÐ )°"% ÐAlthough€English€is€the€standard€language€for€ICONS€simulations,€some€simulations€mayÏsupport€the€use€of€other€languages€other€than€English.€€(In€the€past,€communications€have€takenÏplace€in€German,€Hebrew,€Japanese,€and€Russian,€but€French€and€Spanish€are€the€most€commonÐ è+€%( Ðforeign€languages€supported.)€€The€language€component€is€closely€linked€to€the€foreign€policyÏaspect€of€the€simulation€in€several€ways.€€First,€a€team€might€choose€to€send€its€messages€in€aÏlanguage€other€than€English€if€the€simulation€will€support€communication€in€that€language;€forÏexample,€the€country-team€simulating€Mexico€might€send€its€messages€in€Spanish.€€(This€is€doneÏmost€commonly€when€there€are€several€teams€that€wish€to€use€the€same€language€in€theÏsimulation,€so€that€the€teams€can€both€send€.)€€Second,€if€the€simulation€uses€a€foreign€language,Ïmany€country„teams€will€receive€messages€in€foreign€languages€that€the€students€cannotÏtranslate.€€The€need€to€wait€for€and€depend€on€translations€will€have€a€realistic€impact€on€the€flowÏof€negotiations.ÌÌIf€a€school€wishes€to€send€a€message€in€a€language€other€than€its€native€language,€it€is€stronglyÏrecommended€that€facilitator€make€sure€that€a€native€speaker€is€available€to€review€the€studentsððÏmessages€to€make€sure€that€they€are€correct€and€natural€in€their€wording€and€grammar.€€TheÏsuccess€of€the€simulation€is€directly€impacted€by€the€quality€of€the€messages€sent.€€If€a€teamÏrelies€on€a€translator€with€minimal€language€skills€to€send€its€messages,€it€is€possible€that€thoseÏmessages€will€be€of€such€poor€quality€that€the€language€students€who€translate€them€into€EnglishÏwill€learn€very€little€from€their€effort.€ÌÌA€commitment€to€send€messages€in€a€foreign€language€should€be€taken€seriously.€€If€a€U.S.Ïinstitution€commits€itself€to€sending€messages€in€Spanish,€for€example,€arrangements€are€thenÏmade€for€Spanish€language€students€to€translate€those€incoming€messages.€€This€implies€thatÏlanguage€students€at€institutions€participating€in€that€simulation€will€be€taking€a€SpanishÏtranslation€course€for€credit.€€For€an€ICONS-related€language€course€to€be€successful,€theseÏtranslation€students€must€have€an€adequate€amount€of€work€to€do€throughout€the€course€of€theÏsimulation.€€A€country-team€that€decides€to€send€its€messages€in€Spanish€must€be€prepared€toÏsend€all€of€its€international€exchanges€and€communiques€in€Spanish;€it€cannot€send€in€SpanishÏonly€when€it€is€convenient€to€do€so.€€The€ultimate€success€of€the€simulation€experience€requiresÏthat€faculty€facilitators€understand€the€impact€of€their€language-related€decisions€on€other€aspectsÏof€the€simulation.ÌÌIdeally,€the€process€of€translating€the€foreign€language€message€into€English€should€occur€at€yourÏinstitution.€€However,€this€is€not€always€possible.€€If€language€proficient€students€are€unavailable,Ïlanguage€students€at€other€participating€institutions€will€provide€your€team€with€EnglishÏtranslations€via€the€network.€€No€institution€should€opt€out€of€participating€in€an€ICONSÏsimulation€because€of€foreign€language€constraints.ÌÌWhen€foreign€language€is€used,€ICONS€simulations€demonstrate€the€necessary€interplay€ofÏdiplomacy€and€language.€€The€imposition€of€a€language€ð ðconstraintðð€on€participants€forces€themÐ )°"% Ðto€confront€some€of€the€problems€faced€by€contemporary€foreign€policy€officials.€€It€alsoÏintroduces€students€not€involved€in€language€study€to€the€cultural€nuances€manifested€in€foreignÏlanguage€communications€and€helps€to€demonstrate€their€impact€on€the€foreign€policy€process.Ð è+€%( Ð‡Ô  Ôò òUmpiringó óÔ 1.ÔÐ h ÐLike€many€other€aspects€of€the€simulation€process,€the€umpiring€function€for€ICONS€hasÏundergone€a€significant€evolution.€€Originally,€the€task€of€umpiring€was€viewed€in€a€more€formalÏfashion.€€SIMCON€(Simulation€Control)€reviewed€all€messages€on€the€system€before€their€finalÐ 8 Ð Ðð ðsend-offðð.€€There€was€an€actual€lapse€between€the€point€at€which€the€team€put€their€message€onÐ ( À Ðthe€system€and€the€judgment€on€the€part€of€SIMCON€as€to€whether€that€message€should€beÏforwarded€or€rejected.€€This€was€a€form€of€quality€control,€designed€to€ensure€that€all€messagesÏsatisfied€some€basic€criteria.€€As€one€can€imagine,€however,€this€task€became€more€and€moreÏdifficult€as€the€size€of€ICONS€exercises€began€to€grow.€€We€now€practice€a€more€informalÏmonitoring€of€the€quality€of€messages,€which€we€urge€individual€faculty€members€to€use€withÏtheir€students€as€well.€€ÌÌSpecifically,€we€monitor€the€daily€flow€of€messages€after€they€are€put€on€the€system,€and€engageÏin€troubleshooting,€designed€to€catch€messages€that€do€not€meet€the€following€criteria:ÌÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àò òPlausibilityó ó:€€A€message€may€be€rejected€if€it€is€not€deemed€to€be€plausible€withinÐ x Ðthe€context€of€the€game.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àò òConsistencyó ó:A€message€may€be€rejected€because€it€is€deemed€to€be€inconsistentÐ Hà Ðwith€the€policies€set€forth€in€the€teamððs€position€paper.€€SIMCONððs€motive€here€isÏto€get€the€team€to€think€their€move€through€more€carefully.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àò òClarity:ó ó€€In€certain€cases,€SIMCON€will€reject€a€message€owing€to€its€imprecisionÐ   Ðor€verbosity.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àò òAppropriateness:ó ó€Personal€insults€and€undiplomatic€language€are€not€toleratedÐ Øp Ð(and€often€result€in€other€country„teams€taking€the€offender€less€seriously€in€theÏnegotiations).Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌNaturally,€if€a€team€feels€that€any€action€taken€by€SIMCON€is€unfair€or€unwarranted,€it€is€free€toÏengage€in€a€dialogue€with€the€ð ðControl€Center.ðð€€In€general,€however,€we€find€that€most€studentsÐ ˆ"  Ðare€willing€to€revise€their€initial€messages€if€their€faculty€facilitator€or€SIMCON€indicates€thatÏchanges€are€warranted.€€ÌÌWe€have€found€that€stressing€the€concepts€of€plausibility,€consistency,€clarity,€andÏappropriateness€in€pre-simulation€training€can€be€very€helpful.€€Depending€upon€the€particularÏstudents€involved,€this€latter€method€may€be€all€that€is€needed€to€keep€the€team€on€track.€€InÏshort,€we€hope€that€a€combination€of€cross€checks€on€the€types€of€messages€that€the€teams€areÏsending€will€protect€the€overall€quality€and€integrity€of€the€simulation€for€all€those€participating.ÌÌSIMCON€monitors€the€simulation€for€problems€in€message€content€as€well€as€technicalÐ è+€%( Ðdifficulties.€€However,€SIMCONððs€monitoring€should€be€secondary€to€the€watchful€eye€of€theÏfaculty€facilitator.€€While€we€encourage€facilitators€to€step€back€from€the€teamððs€decision-makingÏprocess,€we€hope€that€they€will€keep€close€enough€track€of€their€teamsðð€performances€to€assistÏwhen€necessary.€€A€team€that€is€allowed€to€ð ðrun€wildðð€can€have€significant€adverse€effects€on€theÐ 8 Ð Ðsimulation€as€a€whole.€€To€this€end,€we€ask€that€faculty€keep€abreast€of€simulation€developments.ÌÌIn€addition€to€the€umpiring€function,€SIMCON€is€also€responsible€for€administrative€issues€withÏthe€simulation€community€and€for€moderating€all€conferences.ÌÌÔ  Ôò òGradesó óÔ Ž<ÔÐ Øp  ÐGenerally,€a€process€for€grading€students€for€their€participation€in€the€simulation€is€developed€byÏthe€individual€facilitator€in€accordance€with€his€or€her€particular€philosophy.€€However,€we€canÏmake€the€following€observations€and€suggestions.€€The€level€of€student€participation€is€usuallyÏquite€high,€within€the€normal€range€of€self-motivation.€€Generally,€most€of€the€students€workÏvery€hard€without€instructor-imposed€papers€and€exams.€€However,€because€students€will€alwaysÏworry€about€grades,€and€because€this€type€of€course€occasionally€attracts€students€looking€for€aÐ x Ðð ðfree€rideðð,€we€recommend€some€combination€of€the€following€steps:Ð h ÐÌà0  àððà0` (#(#àò òEssay€Examsó ó:€€Depending€on€the€framework€in€which€the€simulation€is€beingÐ Hà Ðconducted,€it€may€be€advisable€to€structure€some€of€the€learning€around€essayÏexams€in€which€the€students€are€encouraged€to€delve€into€the€theoreticalÏunderpinnings€of€many€of€the€issues€they€will€face€in€the€negotiation€process.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àò òSummary€Paperó ó:€Having€the€students€write€a€paper€evaluating€the€process€of,Ð ø Ðand€assessing€their€role€in,€the€simulation€is€a€very€useful€exercise.€€StudentsÏshould€be€encouraged€to€take€advantage€of€the€fact€that€the€community€isÐ Øp Ðð ðopenedðð€once€the€simulation€ends,€so€that€all€teams€can€read€all€messages,€notÐ È` Ðjust€their€own.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà  àððà0 ` àò òPeer€Evaluationsó ó:€€This€type€of€assessment€is€very€important,€given€that€theÐ ˜!0 Ðstudents€are€working€in€an€interdependent€team€atmosphere.€€It€is€useful€toÏadminister€these€evaluations€at€the€conclusion€of€the€exercise,€and€ask€the€studentsÏto€confidentially€evaluate€those€with€whom€they€have€had€frequent€contact€duringÏthe€course€of€the€simulation.€€Since€much€of€the€work€that€the€students€do€willÏpresumably€be€done€outside€of€class,€these€peer€evaluations€can€be€extremelyÏvaluable.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌIt€is€essential€that€the€team€facilitator€have€some€set€methods€for€evaluating€student€performance.€ÏCoordinators€should€think€out€the€question€of€grading€in€advance,€making€sure€that€it€is€not€tooÏsubjective€and€that€students€thoroughly€understand€it€prior€to€committing€to€the€simulation.€€ThisÏwill€eliminate€the€potential€for€€problems€at€the€conclusion€of€the€exercise.Ô‡XMXXXú®ÔÐ è+€%( ÐÔ#†Xú®XXXMpF#ÔÌÔ  Ôò òRevisiting€the€Facilitatorððs€Roleó óÔ ÈFÔÐ Xð ÐMost€faculty€and€students€find€the€three€to€five€week€period€of€the€simulation€quite€demanding€inÏterms€of€the€time€and€effort€it€requires.€€It€can€be€a€very€exciting€time,€however,€as€many€of€theÏstudents€become€totally€absorbed€in€the€experience.€€Yet€it€can€also€be€frustrating€if€properÏconsideration€is€not€given€in€advance€to€the€training€necessary€for€a€successful€and€smoothÏsimulation.ÌÌAll€faculty€should€thoroughly€experiment€with€the€ICONSnet€system€prior€to€the€start€of€theÏsimulation€exercise,€so€that€they€are€familiar€with€the€technical€details.€€It€is€also€important€thatÏstudents€be€given€advance€training€on€the€system.€Students€should€be€shown€how€to€sign€onto€theÏcomputer€and€send€and€receive€test€messages.€€This€alleviates€the€tension€that€can€surface€duringÏthe€first€week€of€the€simulation€if€students€are€attempting€to€participate€substantively€in€theÏexercise,€but€are€unable€to€get€past€the€technical€details€of€the€computer.ÌÌIf€resources€are€available,€a€well-trained€graduate€or€undergraduate€assistant€can€be€quite€helpfulÏduring€the€course€of€the€simulation.€€Whenever€computers€are€introduced€into€the€learningÏenvironment,€it€is€essential€that€a€support€system€exist€for€those€students€who€suffer€fromÐ Xð Ðð ðcomputer€jittersðð.€€Rapid€and€irreversible€alienation€can€occur€if€assistance€is€not€available.Ð Hà ÐÌConsiderable€effort€should€also€go€into€the€scheduling€of€meetings€and€communications.€ÏTypically,€all€students€should€be€available€during€the€regular€time€the€class€is€scheduled€to€meetÏas€a€team.€€We€recommend€that€the€students€not€have€access€to€the€computers€during€scheduledÏteam€meetings;€they€should€use€class€time€to€meet€as€a€group€to€discuss€policy€initiatives€andÏimplementation.€ÌÌIn€a€sense,€all€of€the€suggestions€provided€above€shed€light€on€the€role€of€the€faculty€facilitator.€ÏWhat€we€have€discovered€over€the€years€is€that€it€takes€a€great€deal€of€careful€planning€forÏstudents€to€experience€the€spontaneity€and€excitement€of€€the€simulation.€€€That€planning,Ïhowever,€should€largely€remain€behind-the-scenes.€€The€faculty€facilitator€must€be€a€resource€forÏthe€students€--€a€coordinator€of€the€action€rather€than€an€active€participant€in€it.€€This,€of€course,Ïis€not€always€easy.€€The€temptation€to€step€in€and€rewrite€a€message€or€decide€a€policy€issue€forÏthe€team€is€often€quite€strong.€€But€we€have€found€that€sometimes€non-intervention€is€the€bestÏassistance€you€can€provide,€allowing€students€to€ð ðownðð€their€actions€and€the€consequences.Ð X%ð! ÐÌTo€recap,€the€facilitator€has€several€responsibilities.ÌÌà  àððà0 ` àArrange€your€country-team€assignment€with€ICONS€staff.Ð)°"%` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àOrganize€the€foreign€policy€curriculum.€€This€entails€producing€a€syllabus,€givingÐ * #& Ðor€arranging€lectures,€etc.Ð ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àOrganize€your€country-team€into€an€effective€and€efficient€working€group.Ðè+€%(` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àAct€as€a€resource€for€your€country-team€as€it€prepares€its€position€paper.Ðh` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àMonitor€the€country-team€during€the€exercise€to€ensure€that€the€team€is€involvedÐ Xð Ðin€the€simulation€on€a€daily€basis,€and€that€its€messages€are€of€high€quality€both€inÏterms€of€their€content€and€the€use€of€diplomatic€language.€€Ð ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àRead€mail€on€the€faculty€community€for€simulation€updates€throughout€theÐ ( À Ðexercise.Ð ` (#` (# Ðà  àððà0 ` àDebrief€the€country-team€at€the€conclusion€of€the€simulation€and€assign€finalÐ    Ðpapers.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌWhile€facilitating€your€studentsðð€participation€in€an€ICONS€simulation€can€be€demanding,€theÏrewards€to€the€instructors€who€venture€into€this€mode€of€teaching€generally€far€outweigh€theÏextra€effort€required€of€them€during€the€critical€period€in€which€the€exercise€is€running.€Ð  ¸P  ÐÌÔ  ÔÔ‡¼Ž„»XXú®Ôò òAppendixó óÔ#†Xú®X»¼Ž„6W#ÔÔ )WÔÐ Xð ÐÌÔ  Ôò òICONS€Bibliographyó óÔ ­WÔÐ ` ø ÐÒ°Òà ° àÌà ° à¢Brecht£,€¢R.D.£,€Noel€¢R.C.£,€and€Wilkenfeld,€J.€€1984.€€ñ( ñ"ñ( ññ( ñð ðñ( ñComputer€Simulation€in€the€Teaching€ofÐ @ Ø ÐTranslation€and€International€Studies.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòForeign€Language€Annalsóó,€17:6Ð 0 È ÐÌà ° àByrnes,€J.€and€J.€¢Torney£„¢Purta£.€€1995.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñNaive€Theories€and€Decision€Making€as€Part€of€HigherÐ ¨ ÐOrder€Thinking€in€Social€Studies.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòTheory€and€Research€in€Social€Educationóó€XXIII,€no.Ð ˜  Ð3€(Summer),€pp.€260„277.ÌÌà ° à¢Crookall£,€D.€and€P.€¢Landis£.€€1992.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñGlobal€Network€Simulation:€An€Environment€for€GlobalÐ Ðh  ÐAwareness.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€in€¢Crookall£,€D.€and€K.€Arai€(¢eds£.),€òòGlobal€Interdependenceóó,€Springer„Ð ÀX  ТVerlag£.ÌÌà ° à¢Crookall£,€D.€and€A.€Martin.€€1985.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñParticipant€and€Computer€Roles€in€Simulation.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€Ð ( ÐòòSimulation/Games€for€Learningóó,€€15:2Ð € ÐÌà ° à¢Crookall£,€D.,€J.€Wilkenfeld,€and€L.€Young.€€1985.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñMultilingual€and€¢Multicultural£€DevelopmentÐ `ø Ðby€Means€of€a€Multi-Institutional€Simulation:€Work€in€Progress.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€òòJournal€of€MultilingualÐ Pè Ðand€¢Multicultural£€Developmentóó,€€6:5Ð @Ø ÐÌà ° à¢Crookall£,€D.€€1986.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñCALLS:€€Computer-Assisted€Language€Learning€Simulations.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€inÐ  ¸ ÐCameron,€K.,€S.€Dodd€&€S.€¢Rahtz£€(¢eds£.)€òòComputers€and€Modern€Language€Teachingóó.€Ð ¨ ÐUK:€Norwood.ÌÌà ° à¢Crookall£,€D.€and€J.€Wilkenfeld.€€¢l986£.€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñICONS:€Communications€Technologies€and€InternationalÐ àx ÐRelations.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€òòSystemóó,€13:3€Ð Ð h ÐÌà ° à¢Crookall£,€D.€and€J.€Wilkenfeld.€€1987€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñInformation€Technology€in€the€Service€of€a€World-WideÐ °"H ÐMulti-Institutional€Simulation,ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€in€J.€¢Moonen£€and€¢Tjeerd£€¢Plomp£€(¢eds£.)€òò¢EURIT£€86:Ð  #8 ÐDevelopments€in€Educational€Software€and€Coursewareóó,€€Oxford:€¢Pergamon£€Press.Ð $(  ÐÌà ° àNoel,€R.,€D.€¢Crookall£,€J.€Wilkenfeld,€and€L.€¢Schapira£.€€¢l987£.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñNetwork€Gaming:€A€Vehicle€forÐ p& " ТIntercultural£€Communications,€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñ€in€D.€¢Crookall£€et€al.€(¢eds£.),€òòProceedings€of€theÐ `'ø # ÐInternational€Simulation€and€Gaming€Associationóó,€Oxford:€€¢Pergamon£€Press.Ð P(è!$ ÐÌà ° à¢Pirages£,€D.€and€J.€Wilkenfeld.€€1991€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñComputer-Based€Cross-Cultural€Business€NegotiationÐ 0*È#& ÐTraining,ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€in€òòDispute€Resolution€Today--The€State€of€the€Artóó€(Selected€Proceedings€of€theÐ  +¸$' ÐThird€Wingspread€Conference),€M.€J.€¢Walline£€and€L.€Gould€(¢eds£.),€New€York:€AmericanÐ ,¨%( ÐArbitration€Association.ÌÌà ° à¢Rottier£,€K.€1995.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñIf€Kids€Ruled€the€World:€ICONS.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€òòEducational€Leadershipóó,€October.Ð Hà ÐÌà ° à¢Starkey£,€B.€1994.€€Negotiation€Training€Through€Simulation:€The€ICONS€InternationalÏNegotiation€Seminars.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòEducatorsðð€Tech€Exchangeóó,€Spring.Ð  ° ÐÌà ° à¢Starkey£,€B.€and€J.€Wilkenfeld.€€1996.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñProject€ICONS:€Computer„Assisted€Negotiations€for€theÐ ø  ÐIR€Classroom.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòInternational€Studies€Notesóó€21,€no.€1€(Winter)€pp.€25„29.Ð è € ÐÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€1986.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñThe€International€Negotiation€Project€at€the€University€of€Maryland,Ð È`  ÐSpring€and€Fall€Semesters€1985:€Evaluator's€Report.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€(unpublished€report)Ð ¸P  ÐÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€1987.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñStudent€Diplomats€and€International€Studies:€An€Evaluation€of€theÐ ˜0  ÐICONS€Project.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€paper€presented€at€the€Comparative€and€International€Education€SocietyÐ ˆ  Ðmeetings,€Crystal€City,€VA.€ÌÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€1988.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñLeaders'€Training€and€Its€Application:€The€1987€Maryland€SummerÐ Xð ÐCenter€for€International€Studies.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€(unpublished€report)Ð Hà ÐÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€1988.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñThink€Aloud€Solutions€to€International€Problems€as€a€Technique€forÐ (À ÐConducting€Research€on€An€International€Computer-assisted€Simulation.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€PaperÐ ° Ðpresented€at€the€International€Society€for€Political€Psychology,€Meadowlands,€N.J.€ÌÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€1989.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñPolitical€Cognition€and€Its€Restructuring€in€Young€People.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòHumanÐ è€ ÐDevelopmentóó,€¢32:pp£.14-23.Ð Øp ÐÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€¢l990£.€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñFrom€Attitudes€and€Knowledge€to€Schemata:€Expanding€the€OutcomesÐ ¸P Ðof€Political€Socialization€Research.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€in€O.€¢Ichilov£€(ed.)€òòPolitical€Socialization,€citizenshipÐ ¨ @ Ðeducation,€and€democracyóó.€New€York:€Teachers€College€Press,€pp.€98-115.Ð ˜!0 ÐÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€¢l990£.€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñMeasuring€Performance€in€Social€Studies€in€an€Authentic€Fashion.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñÐ x# Ðpaper€presented€at€Symposium€on€Performance€Assessment,€American€EducationalÏResearch€Association,€Boston.€ÌÌà ° à¢Torney£-¢Purta£,€J.€€¢l992£.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñCognitive€Representations€of€the€Political€System€in€Adolescents:€TheÐ 8'Ð # ÐContinuum€from€Pre-Novice€to€Expert.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€in€Haste,€H.€and€J.€¢Torney£-¢Purta£€(¢eds£.)€òòTheÐ ((À!$ ÐDevelopment€of€Political€Understanding:€A€New€Perspectiveóó.€San€Francisco:€¢Jossey£Ð )°"% ÐBass,€pp€11-26.ÌÌà ° àà X àà ° àTorney„Purta,€J.€1994.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñPeer€Interactions€Among€Adolescents€Using€Computer€Networks€in€anÐ è+€%( ÐInternational€Role€Playing€Exercise.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€In€Vosniadou,€S.,€E.€De€Corte,€and€H.€Mandl€(eds.)Ð h ÐòòTechnology„Based€Learning€Environments:€Psychological€and€Educational€Foundationsóó.€Ð Xð ТHeidelburg£,€Germany:€Springer.ÌÌà ° à¢Torney£„¢Purta£,€J.€¢1996a£.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñConceptual€Change€Among€Adolescents€Using€Computer€NetworksÐ ( À Ðand€Peer€Collaboration€in€Studying€International€Political€Issues.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€in€¢Vosniadou£,€S.,€E.Ð  ° ÐDe€¢Corte£,€R.€¢Glaser£,€and€H.€¢Mandl£€(¢eds£.)€òòInternational€Perspectives€on€the€Design€ofÐ    ÐTechnology€Supported€Environmentsóó.€€Hillsdale,€NJ:€Lawrence€Erlbaum€Associates.Ð ø  ÐÌà ° à¢Torney£„¢Purta£,€J.€¢1996b£.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñStudies€of€Political€Socialization€Cross„Nationally:€Reliability€andÐ Øp  ÐValidity€Issues€Across€Time.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€Paper€presented€at€the€International€Society€for€PoliticalÐ È`  ÐPsychology,€Vancouver.Ìà ° àÌà ° à¢Torney£„¢Purta£,€J.€1998.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñEvaluating€Programs€Designed€to€Teach€International€Content€andÐ ˜0  ÐNegotiation€Skills.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòInternational€Negotiationóó€3,€pp.€77„97.Ð ˆ  ÐÌà ° à¢Vavrina£,€V.€1992.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñFrom€Poughkeepsie€to€Peoria€to€the€Persian€Gulf:€A€Noviceððs€ICONSÐ h ÐOdyssey.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòPSóó,€(September),€pp.€54„8.Ð Xð ÐÌà ° àWilkenfeld,€J.€€1983.€€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñComputer-Assisted€International€Studies.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòTeaching€Political€Scienceóó,Ð 8Ð Ð10.ÌÌà ° àWilkenfeld,€J,€and€J.€Kaufman.€1993.€€ñ) ñð ðñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñPolitical€Science:€Network€Simulation€in€InternationalÐ   ÐPolitics.ñ) ñððñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€€òòSocial€Science€Computer€Reviewóó€11:4€(Winter).Ð  ø ÐÒ°ÒÔ  Ôò òPosition€Paper€Outlineó óÔ ÷yÔÐ h ÐÌThe€preparation€of€a€position€paper€is€crucial€to€a€successful€ICONS€simulation.€The€positionÏpaper€not€only€provides€an€important€opportunity€to€conduct€research€on€the€various€substantiveÏtopics,€but€it€also€allows€participants€to€formulate€their€policy€goals€and€appropriate€negotiatingÏstrategies€before€the€simulation€begins.€This€guide€will€assist€in€the€preparation€of€this€positionÏpaper€by€clarifying€the€expectations€with€respect€to€format€and€organization.€ÌÌò òI.€The€format€and€organization€of€the€entire€position€paperó ó.€Ð è € ÐÌà0  àA.€The€final€position€paper€is€the€product€of€a€group€effort.€Therefore,€it€should€beÏsubmitted€as€a€unified€document€rather€than€as€separate€submissions€from€individuals€orÏfrom€issue€area€working€groups.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à1.€The€final€document€should€be€produced€using€one€word-processing€program.€ItÏshould€be€contained€in€a€single€file€and€should€be€printed€as€a€single€document.€Ð ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à2.€The€format,€i.e.€margins,€etc.,€of€the€document€should€be€consistent€throughout.Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àB.€The€final€position€paper€should€be€as€professional€of€a€document€as€possible.€It€shouldÏcontain€the€following€components.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à1.€A€table€of€contents.Ð ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à2.€An€executive€summary€or€overview,€which€succinctly€presents€the€following:Ð ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àa.€The€overall€national€policy€goals.Ð ¸ (#¸ (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àb.€The€broad€policy€goals€for€each€issue€area.Ð ¸ (#¸ (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àc.€A€brief€description€of€the€overall€national€negotiating€strategy.Ð ¸ (#¸ (# ÐÌà0  àC.€Finally,€the€position€paper€should€not€contain€any€policy€recommendations€that€areÏcontradictory.€In€other€words,€the€trade€section€should€not€recommend€a€policy€ofÏ¢delinking£€trade€from€human€rights€if€the€human€rights€section€is€advocating€the€use€ofÏtrade€sanctions€against€a€nation€for€human€rights€abuses.Ð (#(# ÐÌò òII.€The€format€and€organization€of€the€individual€sectionsó ó.€Ð ˆ"  ÐÌEach€section€addressing€a€substantive€issue€area€should€contain€the€following€information,Ïpresented€in€this€format.€ÌÌà0  àA.€The€substantive€issue.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à1.€What€is€the€significance€of€the€issue€at€the€international€level?Ð ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à2.€How€is€this€issue€significant€to€your€nation?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àB.€Policy€objectives.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à1.€What€are€the€policy€objectives€of€your€nation?Ðè+€%(` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à2.€If€these€objectives€cannot€be€reached,€what€are€the€secondary€or€compromiseÏobjectives?€Ð ` (#` (# Тð  ð£Ìà0  àC.€Negotiating€strategies.Ð (#(# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à1.€What€are€the€various€strategies€that€could€be€pursued€in€the€negotiations?€AÏcomprehensive€paper€will€provide€a€variety€of€strategies.Ð ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#à2.€What€are€the€advantages€and€disadvantages€of€each€strategy?Ð ` (#` (# ÐÌà0  àD.€Final€recommendation.€Ð (#(# Ðà0  àWhat€is€the€final€policy€recommendation,€in€terms€of€goals€and€strategies?Ð (#(# ÐÌIn€addition,€each€section€of€the€position€paper€should€include€a€bibliography€of€all€references.ÏThe€importance€of€proper€references€and€citations€cannot€be€overstated,€as€an€academic€integrityÏissue€as€well€as€for€ñ# ñchñ# ññ$ ññ# ñcñ# ññ$ ññ% ñecking€original€ñ% ñreferenceñ& ñs.ñ& ñÌÌÔ  Ôò òÐ  x ÐDebriefingÔ‡ X«8XXXú®Ô€Questionsó óÔ …‰ÔÐ h ÐÌWith€the€conclusion€of€the€exercise,€you€are€entering€a€critical€period€of€the€simulation€process.€ÏDebriefing€is€an€essential€component€of€simulation.€€During€debriefing,€the€students€areÌbrought€out€of€their€simulated€world€and€made€to€focus,€again,€on€reality.€€The€following€areÏsome€questions€you€may€want€to€raise€in€your€class€discussions:ÌÌl.à0  àMany€students€feel€the€need€to€talk€about€the€process€itself.€€They've€gone€through€anÐ ô Œ Ðintense€period€of€activity;€they€need€to€ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñð ðñ) ñlet€off€steam.ñ) ñ"ñ) ññ) ñððñ) ñ€What€were€their€successes?€ÏFailures?€€Frustrations?€€Favorite€aspects?€€Biggest€dislikes?Ð (#(# ÐÌ2.à0  àDiscuss€the€role€of€the€other€teams.€€Why€did€teams€behave€€as€they€did?€€(Examples:Ð ¤<  ÐPersonality?€€Lack€of€information?€€Accurate€€portrayal€of€a€country's€character?)€€HowÏwould€the€real€world€have€reacted€to€their€proposals?€€How€many€of€the€frustratingÏcharacteristics€of€other€teams€were€realistic?€In€what€situations€did€teams€play€out€ofÏcharacter?€€How€did€this€affect€the€simulation?Ð (#(# ÐÌ3.à0  àHow€closely€did€the€simulation€reflect€reality?€€In€what€respects€did€it€mirror€reality?€€InÐ ,Ä Ðwhat€respects€did€it€fail€to€capture€reality?Ð (#(# ÐÌ4.à0  àWhat€were€the€foreign€policy€goals€of€your€country?€€Did€your€goals€change€during€theÐ ðˆ Ðnegotiations?Ð (#(# ÐÌ5.€à0  àWhat€particular€negotiation€skills€or€strategies€did€your€team€use€to€try€to€achieve€ñ' ñitsñ' ññ' ñyourñ' ñÐ ´L Ðgoals?€€How€effective€do€you€think€that€they€were?€€What€are€some€real€world€examplesÏof€these€kinds€of€strategies€(both€from€international€relations€and€from€your€personalÏexperience)?Ð (#(# ÐÌ6.à0  àWhat€types€of€negotiation€strategies€did€other€teams€use?€€Which€negotiations€wereÐ P è Ðeffective?€€On€what€issues€were€teams€willing€to€compromise?€€On€what€issues€wereÏcountries€unwilling€to€compromise?Ð (#(# ÐÌ7.à0  àWho€were€your€allies€during€the€simulation?€€How€did€your€country€relate€to€your€realÐ $˜  Ðworld€allies?€€Did€other€countries€work€with€their€real€world€allies?Ð (#(# ÐÌ8.à0  àHow€would€the€citizens€of€your€country€have€reacted€to€your€goals,€your€decisions,€andÐ Ä&\ # Ðyour€proposals?€€How€do€the€citizens€of€€a€nation€affect€foreign€policy?Ð (#(# ÐÌ9.à0  àHow€did€time€constraints€affect€the€negotiations?€€Are€there€some€issues€on€which€theÐ ˆ) #& Ðgroup€might€have€achieved€agreement€if€there€had€been€more€time€in€the€simulation?€€OnÏthese€issues,€what€questions€remained€to€be€addressed?Ð`+ø$((#(# М‡10.à0  àDiscuss€the€role€of€the€computer€in€the€simulation.€€How€did€it€hamper€and/or€facilitateÐ h Ðnegotiations?Ð (#(# ÐÌ11.à0  àHow€did€your€team€work€as€a€group?€€Was€there€conflict€in€the€decision€making€process?€Ð , Ä ÐHow€does€this€compare€with€real€world€decision-makers?Ð (#(# ÐÌ12.à0  àDiscuss€the€flow€of€information.€€Was€it€difficult€keeping€up€with€the€discussions?€€HowÐ ð ˆ Ðdid€the€students€discern€important€messages€from€less€important€communications?€€WereÏcertain€communications€automatically€given€priority€or€ignored?€€How€does€this€compareÏwith€the€flow€of€information€in€the€real€world?Ô#†Xú®XX X«8´‰#Ô