In addition to daily message exchanges between countries,
conferences are held so real-time negotiations can take
place. Each conference is scheduled for a specific time
of day, and there are two conferences for each issue.
(For example, there will be two conferences held on International
Security, two conferences held on Global Environment
and so on.) The Issues for Negotiation found at
the end of each negotiation topic's description in the
scenario will be the basis for negotiations in each conference.
In general, countries do not participate in every conference
topic (with the exception of Human Rights and International
Trade). Since all countries do participate in the Human
Rights and International Trade conferences, it is necessary
to divide the conferences on these issues into separate
groups. Make sure to confirm which of these groups
your country is assigned to by checking the Conference
Schedule.
The following countries are scheduled to participate in
the listed conferences:
International Security: Brazil, Canada, China,
France, Germany, India, North Korea, Pakistan, Russia,
South Korea, UK, USA
Global Environment: Australia, Austria, Brazil,
Canada, China, France, Germany, Indonesia, Jordan, Kenya,
Mexico, North Korea, Pakistan, Palestinians, Poland,
Russia, UK, USA
Human Rights: All countries will participate
in the human rights conferences.
International Debt and Development: Australia,
Austria, Brazil, Canada, France, India, Indonesia, Kenya,
Mexico, Poland, Russia, South Korea, UK, USA
International Trade: All countries will participate
in the international trade conferences.
World Health: Australia, Austria, Brazil,
China, Germany, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Kenya, Mexico,
North Korea, Pakistan, Palestinians, Poland, South Korea,
USA
Simulation Issues
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
International security remains a topic at the forefront
of international relations. The 1990s began with the
end of the Cold War, but has seen an escalation in regional
and civil conflict, illegal arms sales and the spread
of nuclear weapons.. The efforts by the West and Russia
to reduce both conventional and nuclear stockpiles, in
some cases, has been overshadowed by the efforts of smaller
nations to upgrade their military capabilities and technologies.
The push by some nations to augment their weapons capabilities
has caused some international observers to speculate
about the hidden agendas some may have. There is also
concern that some of these newly acquired weapons could
be diverted to terrorist organizations, smuggled across
borders, or simply be stolen due to lax security procedures.
The drive to augment military capability conflicts with
efforts by various bodies within the international community
to reduce weapons stockpiles, ban the production of highly
lethal weapons, persuade nations to agree to international
arms control treaties, and control terrorism.
Counter-Terrorism
The threat posed by the widespread proliferation
of arms and military technology especially to groups
engaged in terrorism has become a major concern internationally.
While many governments have concerned themselves with
producing or acquiring more weapons, they have also had
to take steps to counteract the growing menace of terrorism
at the same time. Many observers feel that the efforts
made by some countries to increase their military capability
has either directly or indirectly increased the ability
of terrorists to acquire weapons of destruction. Some
believe that a few countries covertly divert weapons
to terrorist groups, while others believe that loose
governmental control of some technologies has dramatically
increased the supply of weapons on the international
black-market, and in turn, allowed terrorists to acquire
more sophisticated weapons. Much of the weaponry available
on the international black-market comes from the arsenals
of the former communist countries of eastern Europe as
well as covert support of certain insurgent groups in
the past by government agencies such as the U.S. Central
Intelligence Agency. (The insurgent groups use the weapons
for their purposes, and then sell them illegally.)
Efforts to counteract terrorism internationally are extremely
difficult. In many cases, terrorist organizations locate
themselves in countries where they know the government
does not have the capability to actively monitor their
activities, or where certain factions within the government
might be sympathetic to their activities. Often times,
these issues make it difficult for one country to take
direct action against hostile terrorist organizations
located in another country; any steps taken to neutralize
a terrorist threat could be viewed as an attack on a
sovereign state, and not just the terrorist organization
operating within that particular country's borders.
In recent years, the threat of terrorist attack by way
of chemical or biological agents has heightened concern
by the international community as suspected chemical
and biological weapons factories have been reported in
countries known to contain terrorist organizations. Chemical
and biological agents are relatively easy to smuggle
across borders, and very small amounts released into
the atmosphere can be deadly. (In Japan in 1995, the
Aum Shinrikyo cult released a small amount Sarin gas
into the Tokyo subway in protest against Japanese society
and government killing 26 people and injuring hundreds
of others.) The international community has attempted
to address the lethality of chemical and biological weapons
by introducing treaties to ban their production, development
and use-- the Biological Weapons Convention was completed
and opened for signature in April 1972, and the Chemical
Weapons Convention was entered into force in April 1997.
By signing and ratifying these treaties governments agree
to abide by their terms, but in several instances, terrorist
groups operating within countries who have signed and
ratified these have proven that they can still acquire
these illegal substances through the black-market. The
task for the international community is to find a way
to keep weapons of mass destruction, particularly chemical
and biological weapons, off of the black-market where
terrorists can acquire them, and continue to cooperatively
address the international threat of terrorism at the
same time.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Nuclear proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear
arms, material, and technology to countries that do not
possess it. In 1996, 178 nations extended the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 which agreed to
limit nuclear weapons to the five declared nuclear nations--United
States, France, United Kingdom, China, and Russia. The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), is responsible
for its enforcement.
Currently, a few nations are under the watchful eye of
the IAEA and the international community. India, Pakistan
and Israel currently possess nuclear capabilities, but
will not sign the NPT. (India and Pakistan tested nuclear
weapons in May 1998. Israel has not yet tested, but is
widely believed to have the capability.) North Korea,
Iran, and Iraq, (all NPT signatories) create serious
concerns because they are at different stages of nuclear
development. The former Soviet Union possessed one of
the largest nuclear arsenals and the instability of Russia
and its former republics continues to worry many experts
particularly because many of these weapons and some of
the materials used to build them cannot be accounted
for.
Serious questions remain regarding the enforcement of the
NPT. The treaty deals with more than the single issue
of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons; it is the basis
of a larger effort to control nuclear technology through
nuclear safeguards. Furthermore, it attempts to promote
cooperation between nuclear and non-nuclear weapon states
on the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. France and
China are concerned with this as both countries are major
exporters of nuclear technology for use in energy production.
The problem with peaceful use of nuclear energy arises
because materials produced by nuclear reactors in energy
production can also be used in the development of nuclear
weapons. This is known as the "dual use" dilemma. The
NPT's support for promoting peaceful uses of nuclear
energy has complicated the arms control mission of the
treaty by raising questions regarding how states can
distinguish between nuclear technology for peaceful and
military purposes, and how states can be monitored for
one use but not the other.
Issues for Negotiation:
COUNTER-TERRORISM
a. What can the international community do to effectively
respond to potential or real threats that terrorist organizations
present? Can action be taken to keep weapons of mass
destruction off of the black-market?
b. Should sanctions be imposed on the countries where known
terrorist organizations reside? What implications would
sanctions have?
NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION
a. How can non-signatories like India, Pakistan or Israel
be encouraged to sign the NPT?
b. How can current signatories, such as Iran and North
Korea be prevented from cheating or violating the terms
of the NPT?
c. Can the "dual use" dilemma be avoided? How?
There will be two conferences held on International Security
that will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the Counter-Terrorism
issues and the second will cover the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
issues.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
Throughout human history, the earth has sustained itself
and its species through natural processes of environmental
regulation and regeneration. However, scientists speak
of "thresholds" beyond which natural systems will not
be able to perform these tasks. During recent history,
humans have developed the capability to change their
environment, whether purposefully (such as by building
dams) or accidently, and there is increasing evidence
that human activity threatens the health of the planet's
environment.
Global Warming
Global warming, the gradual rise in the earth's average
surface temperature, is one of the foremost international
environmental concerns. Many scientists believe a major
cause of global warming is the burning of fossil fuels.
Typically released by industrial emissions and automobiles,
these gases, primarily carbon dioxide, trap heat in the
earth's atmosphere. Scientists speculate that this "greenhouse
effect" may lead to major environmental changes including
severe changes in weather patterns and coastal flooding
caused by melting polar caps. However, other scientists
dismiss this theory and contend that the fluctuation
in the earth's surface temperature is a natural phenomenon
and that there is not enough evidence to prove that the
earth is experiencing a significant or permanent climatic
change.
Differences of opinion still remain over who is responsible
for slowing down the rate of global warming. Brazil and
many other developing nations claim that the industrialized
countries are responsible for global warming, and now
these industrialized countries are asking the developing
countries to bear the responsibility of solving the crisis
at the expense of their own development. Industrialized
countries argue that developing countries are rapidly
increasing their responsibility for global warming because
they continue their quest to industrialize while ignoring
the need for environmental regulations. The industrialized
countries also state that when research findings indicated
some of the causes of the greenhouse effect, they began
taking steps to reduce its impact by implementing energy-efficient,
pollution-friendly technologies, such as moving to cleaner
burning fuels, and retrofitting factories with equipment
that cuts their pollution output. Industrialized countries
claim that developing countries have not taken similar
steps to address the problem. Currently, most developing
countries continue to rely on extremely old technologies,
and argue that the costs of implementing new technologies
prohibits them from making these changes. It is expected
that within 15 years, developing countries will overtake
industrialized countries in per capita emissions output.
In December 1997, an international conference on global
warming was held in Kyoto, Japan. The conference was
an extension of the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Control of 1992. The Kyoto conference concluded with
159 nations agreeing to the terms of the Kyoto Protocol
which requires industrialized nations to cut their greenhouse
gas emissions to a rate roughly 6 percent lower than
their 1990 emissions levels by the year 2012. Under the
terms of the agreement, developing countries are not
obligated to meet any emission reduction levels. The
U.S. held out until the last minute before agreeing to
the terms because it was concerned over the exemption
of developing countries, including large polluters such
as China, India, Mexico and Brazil. Nearly three years
later, the effect of the Protocol still remains unclear.
Deforestation
Like global warming, deforestation has the potential
to adversely effect the earth's environmental and ecological
balance. In developing countries, forests are disappearing
at alarmingly rapid rates. Perhaps the world's most important
forest, the Amazon rainforest in Brazil, is being depleted
at a rate of 5,000- 10,000 square miles(8,000-16,000
square kilometers) per year. Vietnam has lost half its
forest cover in the wake of various development projects.
Ninety percent of lowland forests in the Philippines
have disappeared, and large portions of the Indonesian
rainforest has been cleared.
The effects of deforestation run deeper than just the loss
of resources. Deforestation often leads to soil erosion
and desertification, making the land unsuitable for any
type of agriculture. Furthermore, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, and Brunei, are often subject to unhealthy
air conditions due to smoke from the slash and burn clearing
of Indonesian forests. The smoke-generated pollution
from these forest clearing fires has gotten much worse
in recent years spreading throughout the region (as far
as Thailand and the Philippines). In addition, these
fires, which are set to clear land quickly, have raged
out of control for weeks at a time and cover the entire
region in a dark, murky haze.
Developing countries continue to argue that their forests
are closely tied to their economic development, and that
for them to slow the rate at which they use their forests
would severely impact their already weak economies. Over
the years, developing nations have felt they were receiving
contradictory messages; promote economic development
through industrialization and trade and protect the environment
by saving the rain forests and controlling emissions.
Furthermore, there seems to be a growing rift between
economic "haves" and "have-nots" in regards to environmental
conditions. Japan, in particular, has been praised for
preserving its forests, and at the same time criticized
for its high rates of consumption of lumber imported
from Southeast Asian nations, such as Vietnam. Japan's
importation of lumber has provided great financial incentives
for poorer countries in Southeast Asia to export their
forest resources with little concern for future consequences.
A statement of principles on deforestation was released
at the 1992 Conference on Environment and Development
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (the Rio "Earth Summit"). The
statement recognizes the economic benefits of the rain
forests as well as the global need to preserve them.
The statement does not require any specific actions by
rain forest countries, which resist a binding treaty
out of concern for their national interests.
Issues for negotiation:
GLOBAL WARMING
a. Should the Kyoto Protocol be carried out according to
its terms? If not, what changes should be made to ensure
that those countries who have signed the Protocol will
meet its terms?
b. Should developing countries be held to the same standard
as industrialized countries in terms of meeting a specific
percentage of reduction in greenhouse emissions by a
specific date? If so, what help is necessary to accomplish
this? If not, what other arrangement can nations agree
to?
DEFORESTATION
a. Should there be limits set by the international community
that state how certain countries can use their forests?
b. Are there any other steps that can be taken to alleviate
deforestation?
There will be two conferences held on Global Environment
that will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the Global
Warming issues and the second will cover the Deforestation
issues.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Defining Human Rights
One of the principal problems in the protection of human
rights lies in the inability of governments to agree
on a common definition of human rights. The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights was unanimously adopted by
the United Nations on December 10, 1948. It guarantees
many individual, social, economic and political rights,
including free movement, the right to work, the right
to an adequate standard of living for health and well-being,
and the right to an education. However, the declaration
is non-binding. Consequently, more than 50 years after
the UNDHR came into force, formulating a binding definition
of human rights still remains a highly controversial
issue for the international community.
Attempting to define basic human rights is often difficult
as many countries have differing positions on what a
basic definition of human rights should contain. Many
democratic countries believe that basic human rights
lie in the freedom of self-determination, where citizens
have a voice in their government and an influence on
the policies their elected representatives pursue. Some
non-democratic countries believe that basic human rights
mean that the state itself is responsible for providing
for the well-being of its citizens, such as providing
food, shelter and employment. Furthermore, less developed
countries often argue that citizens could not survive
if it were not for the efforts of the government to provide
for their immediate needs. On occasion, there has been
some discussion of attempting to make the UNDHR a binding
treaty. Some countries find this to be a controversial
topic since a binding treaty would, in effect, require
them to alter their systems of government in order to
fully comply with the how the UNDHR currently reads.
At the same time, while some countries may not be in
favor of making the UNDHR a binding treaty, they continue
to state that basic human rights should be protected.
Women's Rights
The September 1995 World Conference on Women in Beijing,
China focused global attention on the issue of unequal
treatment of women due to social, cultural and economic
forces. A United Nations Development Fund study on the
status of women throughout the world, which was released
shortly before the conference, revealed that women are
the primary victims of poverty and violence, receive
lower pay than male counterparts, work longer hours,
and face social, cultural, and professional obstacles.
In addition, particularly in many developing countries,
women have far less access to education than men. Worldwide,
in 1995 the estimated number of illiterate women aged
15 and over in developing countries was about 556 million
compared with 315 million illiterate men.
The discussion of the rights of women is constrained by
cultural and economic realities. Muslim countries are
unwilling to accept total gender equality for religious
reasons. Many predominately Catholic countries have reservations
regarding the wording of reproductive rights. Other nations
face economic obstacles that prevent them from addressing
the rights of women. Further, in many countries, laws
are written to reflect the fact that women should be
treated differently from men. Evidence of these laws
are most extreme in Afghanistan where the Taliban has
imposed strict interpretation of Islamic law. In this
case, women are not allowed to leave home unless they
are completely covered and accompanied by a male relative,
they are barred from working and have very limited access
to education and health care.
While studies have revealed that education and improved
employment for women reduces population growth and poverty,
many countries lack the resources to provide these opportunities.
Of particular concern is the lack of effective contraception,
which leads to frequent pregnancies and large family
sizes, both of which inflict a burden on a woman's health
and economic well-being. Contraception may be unavailable
due to expense, lack of access to a health clinic, or
religious considerations. Countries involved in these
negotiations will concentrate on developing an international
approach to women's rights issues while attempting to
improving the status of women.
Issues for Negotiation:
DEFINING HUMAN RIGHTS
a. Does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR)
define human rights adequately?
b. Should an attempt be made to make the UNDHR an internationally
binding treaty? Would the document have to be altered
in any way for this to occur? How would a binding UNDHR
be enforced?
WOMEN'S RIGHTS
a. Should the international community establish special
provisions that will specifically protect the rights
and status of women? If so, what should these include?
b. Is it a violation of sovereignty for one nation or a
group of nations to dictate how another country should
treat its citizens whether they are male or female?
There will be two conferences held on Human Rights that
will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the issues
of Defining Human Rights and the second will cover Women's
Rights issues.
INTERNATIONAL DEBT AND DEVELOPMENT
Debt Options
Many developing countries continue to struggle with large
foreign debt; in many cases, they are still trying to
repay loans that were originally acquired in the 1970s.
During that decade, many developing countries took out
huge loans in an attempt to build their national economies.
Western banks had excess capital and were eager to lend
it to the lesser developed countries (LDCs) for development
purposes. By the 1980s, though, these borrowing nations
found themselves unable to service their debt (that is,
pay back the interest and principal on the loan according
to the terms of the lenders), while generating enough
income for their own domestic expenditures. Even today,
many of these countries continue to spend much more money
trying to repay their foreign debt, than they do on their
domestic programs. As a result, economic development
in many LDCs has suffered.
To try and get an handle on their foreign debt, many nations
have worked to restructure their debt much like homeowners
who refinance their mortgages. In this case, debtor nations
negotiate with lenders to reduce the interest on the
debt they owe, or try to lengthen the repayment period
of the loan. Debt forgiveness has also helped developing
countries lessen their debt burden. This occurs when
a lender agrees to forgive some of the money it is owed
by the borrowing country. Debt forgiveness is costly
for the lender, though, as forgiven loans are never repaid.
Most often, debt forgiveness only applies to official
debt owed to a lending country and does not include private
debt (money borrowed from commercial institutions), or
money owed to the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
or World Bank. In addition, in the long-term, debt forgiveness
may affect a country's ability to acquire new loans.
Lenders might be weary to provide new loans to a country
that in the past has demonstrated that it cannot repay
its debts and may seek further debt forgiveness in the
future.
In 1999, the world's seven wealthiest industrialized nations
pledged to help 30 of the world's poorest countries (located
mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America) by agreeing
to forgive more than half of the combined debt these
poor countries owe them, the IMF and the World Bank.
(The 1999 plan was an attempt to expand upon the Highly
Indebted Poor Countries--HIPC--initiative created by
the World Bank in 1995.) In return for the partial debt
forgiveness, the countries who qualify must spend the
money they would have spent servicing their debt, on
improving education and health programs in their countries.
In this case, the private debt that these countries hold
(which is considerable) will not be affected by the plan.
The effectiveness of the World Bank's HIPC initiative
has come under increased scrutiny lately, though, as
some of the countries who qualified for the original
HIPC program in 1995 have once again found themselves
faced with unsustainable foreign debt.
Questions remain for the international community on the
best way to relieve the crushing debt developing countries
have accumulated.
Development Strategies
A closely related problem to debt is economic development.
LDCs are limited in their resources to develop a strong
and diverse domestic economy that will remain stable
over a long period of time. Certainly, debt servicing
works to reduce the amount of capital that a country
can put towards development efforts. Several attempts
have been made by the international community over the
last four decades to increase economic development in
lesser developed countries, but the results have been
less than satisfying.
Trade has been proposed as a primary solution to global
development efforts. Nations that are suffering from
underdeveloped economies have been encouraged to open
their economies to foreign investment and development
in order to provide additional products and employment
opportunities for their citizens. Furthermore, by emphasizing
production for export (known as export-led growth) developing
countries can earn additional hard currency to pay existing
debts, and can develop sources of income to reduce the
need for additional debts. Offering a variety of exports
can also allow countries to alleviate the risk of relying
on one major export which can lead to losses if the price
of the commodity sinks on the international market. Further,
dependence on a single crop or product can create additional
vulnerability in the economy if a crop's yield is poor
or there are problems with the production of a certain
product.
Opponents of trade as a tool for development point out
that emphasizing production for export can lead the government
to ignore production for domestic consumption. This results
in serious shortages at home. These opponents also argue
that opening the economy and markets of a developing
country to foreign competition reduces the likelihood
that local citizens will be able to develop businesses
and sell their products in the international market because
of the competition from global corporations. Although
they agree that additional jobs are created by the arrival
of foreign corporations, they argue that these jobs are
often low paying and simply freeze their citizens in
their poverty without providing opportunities for economic
growth or self-sufficiency.
Another possible solution put forth to solve economic development
efforts is industrialization. Many LDCs want a diverse
economy of factories, agriculture and other modes of
production that resemble those of developed countries.
The construction of factories, which creates both jobs
and exports, requires capital, which is not readily available
in LDCs. Additionally, foreign producers have often been
reluctant to invest in developing countries because of
high taxes, strict regulations, patent questions, possible
political unrest, and the potential for a hostile takeover
of foreign businesses by the local government. Conversely,
many LDC governments have opposed investments by foreign
businesses because profits usually go back to the home
country. Meanwhile, the infrastructure of most developing
countries is in desperate need of improvement, and the
resources for infrastructure improvements are not available.
Despite these obstacles, many corporations do decide
to locate their businesses in foreign countries because
of lower wages.
Concern over the harmful effects of Western-style development
strategies has led to a development approach known as
sustainable development. Sustainable development programs
attempt to consider economic conditions, local cultural
and political traditions, environmental concerns, and
long term benefits. Basically, sustainable development
works to meet the current needs of the population without
jeopardizing the needs of future generations. The concept
focuses on the basic needs of citizens and the limitations
of their environment in which they live. It focuses on
developing a region's unique or already existing resources
rather than relying on an imported source. These programs
also tend to focus on health, education, and women's
issues where appropriate. Some observers claim that sustainable
development should not be relied on exclusively because
it cannot produce enough products to supply both foreign
and domestic needs.
Issues for Negotiation:
DEBT OPTIONS
a. What sort of support should be given to developing countries
who are unable to manage their foreign debt?
b. Is debt forgiveness a good solution? What should the
criteria be for a country to qualify for debt forgiveness?
What will indebted countries have to do in return for
debt forgiveness?
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
a. What economic development tactics might best relieve
LDCs debt and dependency cycle? Heavy industrialization?
Sustainable development? Increased trade?
b. Can the international community agree on an overall
method or formula for development that LDCs should follow
that focuses on self-reliance and eases such strong dependency
on other countries?
There will be two conferences held on International Debt
and Development that will specifically examine the issues
for negotiation listed above. The first conference will
cover the Debt Options issues and the second will cover
the Development Strategies issues.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Regional Trade Agreements
One trend with uncertain consequences for global trade
is that toward regional trade agreements. Countries that
become part of a regional trade agreement drastically
reduce tariffs and other trade barriers on goods entering
from other member countries. Some of the larger regional
trade agreements are the European Union (EU), the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Southern
Cone Common Market (Mercosur) comprised of some South
American countries. African leaders are also making strides
towards an African Economic Community, and members of
the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) have
also committed themselves to the creation of an ASEAN
Free Trade Area (AFTA). The impact of regional trade
agreements on international trade is an important issue
within the World Trade Organization (WTO).
The World Trade Organization evolved from another organization
called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
(The name GATT commonly refers to both the agreement
and the institution that oversaw it.) GATT was begun
over 50 years ago to create and strengthen trade relationships
internationally between participating countries. The
WTO was created by GATT members in 1995 to essentially
replace the GATT organization, and continue its work
towards a system of global free trade. All of the agreements
that were reached under GATT are still in place, though,
and are now overseen by the WTO. The differences between
the old GATT and new WTO is that the WTO has much more
power to set and enforce rules for international trade.
The WTO works to resolve disputes over tariffs, subsidies,
product dumping, agricultural products, and intellectual
property rights. The WTO continues to oversee trade agreements
among member its member nations, including regional trade
agreements.
Some observers believe that regional trade agreements may
not be as good as they seem on the surface. These observers
fear that these agreements may undermine the global trading
system, as countries become accustomed to the preferential
arrangements of trading only with other members, and
become less willing to pursue a system of global free
trade. In this case, these agreements turn into "trade
fortresses" that essentially slow or block trade with
non-member countries, something that the EU has been
accused of. This puts non-member countries at an extreme
disadvantage when they are unable to compete with the
small or non-existent tariffs offered to member countries.
This could have serious consequences for those countries
who rely heavily on imports, and are not part of a regional
trade agreement.
Child Labor
A current challenge facing the international community,
and the WTO in particular, is trying to determine the
extent to which international trade rules should govern
issues which have previously been considered part of
a country's domestic policy. Child labor is one of these
issues. In order to compete in the global economy, many
developing countries continue to rely on children to
supplement their labor forces. According to recent global
estimates by the International Labor Organizations (ILO),
the number of working children between the ages of 5
and 14 in developing countries is nearly 250 million,
and of these, some 120 million work full time. These
estimates suggest that Africa, the poorest region, has
the highest incidence of child workers--40 percent, while
the figure in both Asia and Latin America is about 20
percent each. But Asia, the most populous region, has
the largest absolute numbers of child workers. The U.S.
and other European countries, in particular, are concerned
about the use of child laborers, but developing nations,
led by India, Pakistan, and Egypt, view the proposals
on child labor put forth by developed countries as interference
in their domestic policies, and as an attempt to undermine
their market advantage--cheap labor.
Globalization and trade liberalization may make the problem
of child labor worse. As corporations and countries attempt
to cut production costs in export industries, they may
be tempted to employ children to acquire or maintain
a competitive advantage in world markets. Such fears
have fueled calls for a "social clause" in international
trade agreements that would require children under a
certain age would not be permitted to work. Further,
the issue of the age at which childhood ends and adulthood
begins, has been a difficult one for the international
community to come to terms on. This age may vary from
society to society based on differing customs, values
and laws. Poverty also makes restrictions on child labor
difficult as families in many regions require as many
able-bodied people to work as possible in order to survive.
The possibility of using negative economic incentives
to discourage child labor has been gaining momentum,
but developing countries continue to claim that it is
nearly impossible for them to regulate child labor.
Issues for Negotiation:
REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS
a. Are regional trade agreements working to move the world
closer to or farther away from global free trade?
b. If RTAs are working to move the world closer to global
free trade, what actions should be taken by the WTO to
improve trade relationships in order to reach this goal?
If not, what actions should be taken by the WTO to counteract
the negative effects of regional trade agreements?
CHILD LABOR
a. As global trade expands, should the international community
move to create trade rules that would end child labor?
If so, what specific rules should be made in this regard?
b. What implications would a trade policy that effects
child labor have on developing countries?
There will be two conferences held on International Trade
that will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above.The first conference will cover the Regional
Trade Agreements issues and the second will cover Child
Labor issues.
WORLD HEALTH
Communicable Diseases
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), communicable
diseases killed nearly 17 million people in 1998, with
90 percent of these deaths occurring in developing countries.
(Infectious diseases are more likely to affect poor or
rural people, while higher income individuals, who have
a higher life expectancy, are more affected by non-communicable
diseases such as cancer and heart disease.) Communicable
diseases are currently the world's leading cause of death.
Many communicable diseases are preventable or curable,
but can have devastating effects when left untreated.
Despite the fact that it can be effectively treated with
drugs, tuberculosis killed 1.5 million people worldwide
in 1998. Cholera, an intestinal disease spread by contaminated
food and water, has become increasingly widespread over
the past several years. With good treatment, the fatality
rate for those afflicted with cholera can be less than
one percent. Death from cholera can come quickly, however,
where treatment is not available. As in the case of cholera,
environmental conditions associated with poverty make
disease more likely to occur, while poverty itself often
prevents effective treatment.
One of the most troubling aspects of these outbreaks is
the potential difficulty in containing them. A great
deal of contagious diseases are transmitted through the
air--that is, they spread easily via air currents, which
allows certain diseases to spread from person to person
very rapidly without respect to barriers or international
borders. In addition, mechanized transportation, including
global air travel, has made it possible for diseases
to spread rapidly beyond the primary area of contamination.
These factors have raised concerns that the next epidemic
will not be so quickly contained. (These concerns are
important not just for swift-acting epidemics, but for
diseases that cause chronic infections, such as malaria,
a mosquito-transmitted disease that kills nearly 5,000
Africans a day. Some strains of malaria are becoming
increasingly resistant to existing drugs.)
Another communicable disease, AIDS, continues to be a problem.
Although AIDS has been detected throughout the world,
it is of particular concern in Africa. Several sub-Saharan
African countries have a significant percentage of their
populations infected with the virus that causes AIDS.
Other African countries that have not yet been hard hit
by the epidemic are reluctant to dedicate limited resources
to education and prevention. Other health threats such
as malnutrition and traditional disease present an immediate
need and drain resources that might otherwise be used
to prevent the spread of AIDS. In other nations, the
resources being used to fight AIDS represent a drain
of funds that might otherwise be available to prevent
or cure other diseases. In addition, African governments
and AIDS patients seldom have the resources to afford
expensive drugs that are often used in the treatment
of AIDS in the U.S. and Europe. African countries, as
well as other nations grappling with the AIDS epidemic,
are forced to allocate limited resources among AIDS treatment,
prevention, and research towards finding a cure.
Population Growth
Another prominent health concern is global population
growth. There is no clear consensus on the global impact
of expanding populations. Population growth is seen by
many as a threat to the world's resources, the environment,
and the quality of human life. Others maintain that population
growth is natural and a positive force toward resolving
issues that currently confront humanity.
Although the population growth rate in developed countries
is significantly lower than that of most developing nations,
the populations of industrialized nations put more pressure
on the earth's carrying capacity than equal numbers of
people in less developed nations. Each individual in
an industrialized society consumes more calories, produces
more solid waste, uses more fossil fuels, and produces
more emissions than his or her counterpart in a poorer
country.
In these terms, population growth in industrial nations
has been seen as the greater threat to global survival
than LDC population growth. However, others argue that
the industrialized nations are better able to provide
a quality existence for a growing population. They argue
that the greatest threat comes from rapid population
growth in nations that cannot provide basic nutrition,
health care, shelter, or employment for their citizens.
Efforts to control population growth rates have been very
controversial. This was especially apparent at the UN
Conference on Population, held in Cairo, Egypt, in September
1994. Birth control can be considered an intrusion into
the culture and often the religion of countries with
high population growth rates. In addition, many developing
countries have seen population control efforts as an
effort to reduce the population of specific ethnic groups.
Issues for Negotiation:
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
a. Realizing that different diseases require different
actions, how can communicable diseases be treated and
prevented?
b. What precautions can be undertaken to prevent the international
spread of diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, and
AIDS? How can these efforts be funded?
POPULATION GROWTH
a. Is population growth a positive or negative force? Should
population growth be an international concern?
b. If the countries decide that population control should
be a goal, how can it be accomplished without violating
religions, cultures, human rights, or targeting ethnic
groups?
There will be two conferences held on World Health that
will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the Communicable
Disease issues and the second will cover the Population
Growth issues.
