In addition to daily message exchanges between countries,
conferences are held so real-time negotiations can take
place. Each conference is scheduled for a specific time
of day, and there are two conferences for each issue.
(For example, there will be two conferences held on International
Security, two conferences held on Global Environment
and so on.) The Issues for Negotiation found at
the end of each negotiation topic's description in the
scenario will be the basis for negotiations in each conference.
The following countries are scheduled to participate in
the listed conferences:
International Security: All countries will
participate in these conferences.
Global Environment: All countries will participate
in these conferences.
Human Rights: All countries will participate
in these conferences.
International Trade: All countries will participate
in these conferences.
Simulation Issues
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
International security remains a topic at the forefront
of international relations. The 1990s began with the
end of the Cold War, but has seen an escalation in regional
and civil conflict, illegal arms sales and the spread
of nuclear weapons.. The efforts by the West and Russia
to reduce both conventional and nuclear stockpiles, in
some cases, has been overshadowed by the efforts of smaller
nations to upgrade their military capabilities and technologies.
The push by some nations to augment their weapons capabilities
has caused some international observers to speculate
about the hidden agendas some may have. There is also
concern that some of these newly acquired weapons could
be diverted to terrorist organizations, smuggled across
borders, or simply be stolen due to lax security procedures.
The drive to augment military capability conflicts with
efforts by various bodies within the international community
to reduce weapons stockpiles, ban the production of highly
lethal weapons, persuade nations to agree to international
arms control treaties, and control terrorism.
Counter-Terrorism
The threat posed by the widespread proliferation
of arms and military technology especially to groups
engaged in terrorism has become a major concern internationally.
While many governments have concerned themselves with
producing or acquiring more weapons, they have also had
to take steps to counteract the growing menace of terrorism
at the same time. Many observers feel that the efforts
made by some countries to increase their military capability
has either directly or indirectly increased the ability
of terrorists to acquire weapons of destruction. Some
believe that a few countries covertly divert weapons
to terrorist groups, while others believe that loose
governmental control of some technologies has dramatically
increased the supply of weapons on the international
black-market, and in turn, allowed terrorists to acquire
more sophisticated weapons. Much of the weaponry available
on the international black-market comes from the arsenals
of the former communist countries of eastern Europe as
well as covert support of certain insurgent groups in
the past by government agencies such as the U.S. Central
Intelligence Agency. (The insurgent groups use the weapons
for their purposes, and then sell them illegally.)
Efforts to counteract terrorism internationally are extremely
difficult. In many cases, terrorist organizations locate
themselves in countries where they know the government
does not have the capability to actively monitor their
activities, or where certain factions within the government
might be sympathetic to their activities. Often times,
these issues make it difficult for one country to take
direct action against hostile terrorist organizations
located in another country; any steps taken to neutralize
a terrorist threat could be viewed as an attack on a
sovereign state, and not just the terrorist organization
operating within that particular country's borders.
In recent years, the threat of terrorist attack by way
of chemical or biological agents has heightened concern
by the international community as suspected chemical
and biological weapons factories have been reported in
countries known to contain terrorist organizations. Chemical
and biological agents are relatively easy to smuggle
across borders, and very small amounts released into
the atmosphere can be deadly. (In Japan in 1995, the
Aum Shinrikyo cult released a small amount Sarin gas
into the Tokyo subway in protest against Japanese society
and government killing 26 people and injuring hundreds
of others.) The international community has attempted
to address the lethality of chemical and biological weapons
by introducing treaties to ban their production, development
and use-- the Biological Weapons Convention was completed
and opened for signature in April 1972, and the Chemical
Weapons Convention was entered into force in April 1997.
By signing and ratifying these treaties governments agree
to abide by their terms, but in several instances, terrorist
groups operating within countries who have signed and
ratified these have proven that they can still acquire
these illegal substances through the black-market. The
task for the international community is to find a way
to keep weapons of mass destruction, particularly chemical
and biological weapons, off of the black-market where
terrorists can acquire them, and continue to cooperatively
address the international threat of terrorism at the
same time.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Nuclear proliferation refers to the spread of nuclear
arms, material, and technology to countries that do not
possess it. In 1996, 178 nations extended the Nuclear
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 which agreed to
limit nuclear weapons to the five declared nuclear nations--United
States, France, United Kingdom, China, and Russia. The
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), is responsible
for its enforcement.
Currently, a few nations are under the watchful eye of
the IAEA and the international community. India, Pakistan
and Israel currently possess nuclear capabilities, but
will not sign the NPT. (India and Pakistan tested nuclear
weapons in May 1998. Israel has not yet tested, but is
widely believed to have the capability.) North Korea,
Iran, and Iraq, (all NPT signatories) create serious
concerns because they are at different stages of nuclear
development. The former Soviet Union possessed one of
the largest nuclear arsenals and the instability of Russia
and its former republics continues to worry many experts
particularly because many of these weapons and some of
the materials used to build them cannot be accounted
for.
Serious questions remain regarding the enforcement of the
NPT. The treaty deals with more than the single issue
of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons; it is the basis
of a larger effort to control nuclear technology through
nuclear safeguards. Furthermore, it attempts to promote
cooperation between nuclear and non-nuclear weapon states
on the peaceful uses of nuclear technology. France and
China are concerned with this as both countries are major
exporters of nuclear technology for use in energy production.
The problem with peaceful use of nuclear energy arises
because materials produced by nuclear reactors in energy
production can also be used in the development of nuclear
weapons. This is known as the "dual use" dilemma. The
NPT's support for promoting peaceful uses of nuclear
energy has complicated the arms control mission of the
treaty by raising questions regarding how states can
distinguish between nuclear technology for peaceful and
military purposes, and how states can be monitored for
one use but not the other.
Issues for Negotiation:
COUNTER-TERRORISM
a. What can the international community do to effectively
respond to potential or real threats that terrorist organizations
present? Can action be taken to keep weapons of mass
destruction off of the black-market?
b. Should sanctions be imposed on the countries where known
terrorist organizations reside? What implications would
sanctions have?
NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION
a. How can non-signatories like India, Pakistan or Israel
be encouraged to sign the NPT?
b. How can current signatories, such as Iran and North
Korea be prevented from cheating or violating the terms
of the NPT?
c. Can the "dual use" dilemma be avoided? How?
There will be two conferences held on International Security
that will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the Counter-Terrorism
issues and the second will cover the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
issues.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
Throughout human history, the earth has sustained itself
and its species through natural processes of environmental
regulation and regeneration. However, scientists speak
of "thresholds" beyond which natural systems will not
be able to perform these tasks. During recent history,
humans have developed the capability to change their
environment, whether purposefully (such as by building
dams) or accidently, and there is increasing evidence
that human activity threatens the health of the planet's
environment.
Global Warming
Global warming, the gradual rise in the earth's average
surface temperature, is one of the foremost international
environmental concerns. Many scientists believe a major
cause of global warming is the burning of fossil fuels.
Typically released by industrial emissions and automobiles,
these gases, primarily carbon dioxide, trap heat in the
earth's atmosphere. Scientists speculate that this "greenhouse
effect" may lead to major environmental changes including
severe changes in weather patterns and coastal flooding
caused by melting polar caps. However, other scientists
dismiss this theory and contend that the fluctuation
in the earth's surface temperature is a natural phenomenon
and that there is not enough evidence to prove that the
earth is experiencing a significant or permanent climatic
change.
Differences of opinion still remain over who is responsible
for slowing down the rate of global warming. Brazil and
many other developing nations claim that the industrialized
countries are responsible for global warming, and now
these industrialized countries are asking the developing
countries to bear the responsibility of solving the crisis
at the expense of their own development. Industrialized
countries argue that developing countries are rapidly
increasing their responsibility for global warming because
they continue their quest to industrialize while ignoring
the need for environmental regulations. The industrialized
countries also state that when research findings indicated
some of the causes of the greenhouse effect, they began
taking steps to reduce its impact by implementing energy-efficient,
pollution-friendly technologies, such as moving to cleaner
burning fuels, and retrofitting factories with equipment
that cuts their pollution output. Industrialized countries
claim that developing countries have not taken similar
steps to address the problem. Currently, most developing
countries continue to rely on extremely old technologies,
and argue that the costs of implementing new technologies
prohibits them from making these changes. It is expected
that within 15 years, developing countries will overtake
industrialized countries in per capita emissions output.
In December 1997, an international conference on global
warming was held in Kyoto, Japan. The conference was
an extension of the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Control of 1992. The Kyoto conference concluded with
159 nations agreeing to the terms of the Kyoto Protocol
which requires industrialized nations to cut their greenhouse
gas emissions to a rate roughly 6 percent lower than
their 1990 emissions levels by the year 2012. Under the
terms of the agreement, developing countries are not
obligated to meet any emission reduction levels. The
U.S. held out until the last minute before agreeing to
the terms because it was concerned over the exemption
of developing countries, including large polluters such
as China, India, Mexico and Brazil. Nearly three years
later, the effect of the Protocol still remains unclear.
Deforestation
Like global warming, deforestation has the potential
to adversely effect the earth's environmental and ecological
balance. In developing countries, forests are disappearing
at alarmingly rapid rates. Perhaps the world's most important
forest, the Amazon rainforest in Brazil, is being depleted
at a rate of 5,000- 10,000 square miles(8,000-16,000
square kilometers) per year. Vietnam has lost half its
forest cover in the wake of various development projects.
Ninety percent of lowland forests in the Philippines
have disappeared, and large portions of the Indonesian
rainforest has been cleared.
The effects of deforestation run deeper than just the loss
of resources. Deforestation often leads to soil erosion
and desertification, making the land unsuitable for any
type of agriculture. Furthermore, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, and Brunei, are often subject to unhealthy
air conditions due to smoke from the slash and burn clearing
of Indonesian forests. The smoke-generated pollution
from these forest clearing fires has gotten much worse
in recent years spreading throughout the region (as far
as Thailand and the Philippines). In addition, these
fires, which are set to clear land quickly, have raged
out of control for weeks at a time and cover the entire
region in a dark, murky haze.
Developing countries continue to argue that their forests
are closely tied to their economic development, and that
for them to slow the rate at which they use their forests
would severely impact their already weak economies. Over
the years, developing nations have felt they were receiving
contradictory messages; promote economic development
through industrialization and trade and protect the environment
by saving the rain forests and controlling emissions.
Furthermore, there seems to be a growing rift between
economic "haves" and "have-nots" in regards to environmental
conditions. Japan, in particular, has been praised for
preserving its forests, and at the same time criticized
for its high rates of consumption of lumber imported
from Southeast Asian nations, such as Vietnam. Japan's
importation of lumber has provided great financial incentives
for poorer countries in Southeast Asia to export their
forest resources with little concern for future consequences.
A statement of principles on deforestation was released
at the 1992 Conference on Environment and Development
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (the Rio "Earth Summit"). The
statement recognizes the economic benefits of the rain
forests as well as the global need to preserve them.
The statement does not require any specific actions by
rain forest countries, which resist a binding treaty
out of concern for their national interests.
Issues for negotiation:
GLOBAL WARMING
a. Should the Kyoto Protocol be carried out according to
its terms? If not, what changes should be made to ensure
that those countries who have signed the Protocol will
meet its terms?
b. Should developing countries be held to the same standard
as industrialized countries in terms of meeting a specific
percentage of reduction in greenhouse emissions by a
specific date? If so, what help is necessary to accomplish
this? If not, what other arrangement can nations agree
to?
DEFORESTATION
a. Should there be limits set by the international community
that state how certain countries can use their forests?
b. Are there any other steps that can be taken to alleviate
deforestation?
There will be two conferences held on Global Environment
that will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the Global
Warming issues and the second will cover the Deforestation
issues.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Defining Human Rights
One of the principal problems in the protection of human
rights lies in the inability of governments to agree
on a common definition of human rights. The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights was unanimously adopted by
the United Nations on December 10, 1948. It guarantees
many individual, social, economic and political rights,
including free movement, the right to work, the right
to an adequate standard of living for health and well-being,
and the right to an education. However, the declaration
is non-binding. Consequently, more than 50 years after
the UNDHR came into force, formulating a binding definition
of human rights still remains a highly controversial
issue for the international community.
Attempting to define basic human rights is often difficult
as many countries have differing positions on what a
basic definition of human rights should contain. Many
democratic countries believe that basic human rights
lie in the freedom of self-determination, where citizens
have a voice in their government and an influence on
the policies their elected representatives pursue. Some
non-democratic countries believe that basic human rights
mean that the state itself is responsible for providing
for the well-being of its citizens, such as providing
food, shelter and employment. Furthermore, less developed
countries often argue that citizens could not survive
if it were not for the efforts of the government to provide
for their immediate needs. On occasion, there has been
some discussion of attempting to make the UNDHR a binding
treaty. Some countries find this to be a controversial
topic since a binding treaty would, in effect, require
them to alter their systems of government in order to
fully comply with the how the UNDHR currently reads.
At the same time, while some countries may not be in
favor of making the UNDHR a binding treaty, they continue
to state that basic human rights should be protected.
Women's Rights
The September 1995 World Conference on Women in Beijing,
China focused global attention on the issue of unequal
treatment of women due to social, cultural and economic
forces. A United Nations Development Fund study on the
status of women throughout the world, which was released
shortly before the conference, revealed that women are
the primary victims of poverty and violence, receive
lower pay than male counterparts, work longer hours,
and face social, cultural, and professional obstacles.
In addition, particularly in many developing countries,
women have far less access to education than men. Worldwide,
in 1995 the estimated number of illiterate women aged
15 and over in developing countries was about 556 million
compared with 315 million illiterate men.
The discussion of the rights of women is constrained by
cultural and economic realities. Muslim countries are
unwilling to accept total gender equality for religious
reasons. Many predominately Catholic countries have reservations
regarding the wording of reproductive rights. Other nations
face economic obstacles that prevent them from addressing
the rights of women. Further, in many countries, laws
are written to reflect the fact that women should be
treated differently from men. Evidence of these laws
are most extreme in Afghanistan where the Taliban has
imposed strict interpretation of Islamic law. In this
case, women are not allowed to leave home unless they
are completely covered and accompanied by a male relative,
they are barred from working and have very limited access
to education and health care.
While studies have revealed that education and improved
employment for women reduces population growth and poverty,
many countries lack the resources to provide these opportunities.
Of particular concern is the lack of effective contraception,
which leads to frequent pregnancies and large family
sizes, both of which inflict a burden on a woman's health
and economic well-being. Contraception may be unavailable
due to expense, lack of access to a health clinic, or
religious considerations. Countries involved in these
negotiations will concentrate on developing an international
approach to women's rights issues while attempting to
improving the status of women.
Issues for Negotiation:
DEFINING HUMAN RIGHTS
a. Does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR)
define human rights adequately?
b. Should an attempt be made to make the UNDHR an internationally
binding treaty? Would the document have to be altered
in any way for this to occur? How would a binding UNDHR
be enforced?
WOMEN'S RIGHTS
a. Should the international community establish special
provisions that will specifically protect the rights
and status of women? If so, what should these include?
b. Is it a violation of sovereignty for one nation or a
group of nations to dictate how another country should
treat its citizens whether they are male or female?
There will be two conferences held on Human Rights that
will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above. The first conference will cover the issues
of Defining Human Rights and the second will cover Women's
Rights issues.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Regional Trade Agreements
One trend with uncertain consequences for global trade
is that toward regional trade agreements. Countries that
become part of a regional trade agreement drastically
reduce tariffs and other trade barriers on goods entering
from other member countries. Some of the larger regional
trade agreements are the European Union (EU), the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Southern
Cone Common Market (Mercosur) comprised of some South
American countries. African leaders are also making strides
towards an African Economic Community, and members of
the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) have
also committed themselves to the creation of an ASEAN
Free Trade Area (AFTA). The impact of regional trade
agreements on international trade is an important issue
within the World Trade Organization (WTO).
The World Trade Organization evolved from another organization
called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
(The name GATT commonly refers to both the agreement
and the institution that oversaw it.) GATT was begun
over 50 years ago to create and strengthen trade relationships
internationally between participating countries. The
WTO was created by GATT members in 1995 to essentially
replace the GATT organization, and continue its work
towards a system of global free trade. All of the agreements
that were reached under GATT are still in place, though,
and are now overseen by the WTO. The differences between
the old GATT and new WTO is that the WTO has much more
power to set and enforce rules for international trade.
The WTO works to resolve disputes over tariffs, subsidies,
product dumping, agricultural products, and intellectual
property rights. The WTO continues to oversee trade agreements
among member its member nations, including regional trade
agreements.
Some observers believe that regional trade agreements may
not be as good as they seem on the surface. These observers
fear that these agreements may undermine the global trading
system, as countries become accustomed to the preferential
arrangements of trading only with other members, and
become less willing to pursue a system of global free
trade. In this case, these agreements turn into "trade
fortresses" that essentially slow or block trade with
non-member countries, something that the EU has been
accused of. This puts non-member countries at an extreme
disadvantage when they are unable to compete with the
small or non-existent tariffs offered to member countries.
This could have serious consequences for those countries
who rely heavily on imports, and are not part of a regional
trade agreement.
Child Labor
A current challenge facing the international community,
and the WTO in particular, is trying to determine the
extent to which international trade rules should govern
issues which have previously been considered part of
a country's domestic policy. Child labor is one of these
issues. In order to compete in the global economy, many
developing countries continue to rely on children to
supplement their labor forces. According to recent global
estimates by the International Labor Organizations (ILO),
the number of working children between the ages of 5
and 14 in developing countries is nearly 250 million,
and of these, some 120 million work full time. These
estimates suggest that Africa, the poorest region, has
the highest incidence of child workers--40 percent, while
the figure in both Asia and Latin America is about 20
percent each. But Asia, the most populous region, has
the largest absolute numbers of child workers. The U.S.
and other European countries, in particular, are concerned
about the use of child laborers, but developing nations,
led by India, Pakistan, and Egypt, view the proposals
on child labor put forth by developed countries as interference
in their domestic policies, and as an attempt to undermine
their market advantage--cheap labor.
Globalization and trade liberalization may make the problem
of child labor worse. As corporations and countries attempt
to cut production costs in export industries, they may
be tempted to employ children to acquire or maintain
a competitive advantage in world markets. Such fears
have fueled calls for a "social clause" in international
trade agreements that would require children under a
certain age would not be permitted to work. Further,
the issue of the age at which childhood ends and adulthood
begins, has been a difficult one for the international
community to come to terms on. This age may vary from
society to society based on differing customs, values
and laws. Poverty also makes restrictions on child labor
difficult as families in many regions require as many
able-bodied people to work as possible in order to survive.
The possibility of using negative economic incentives
to discourage child labor has been gaining momentum,
but developing countries continue to claim that it is
nearly impossible for them to regulate child labor.
Issues for Negotiation:
REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS
a. Are regional trade agreements working to move the world
closer to or farther away from global free trade?
b. If RTAs are working to move the world closer to global
free trade, what actions should be taken by the WTO to
improve trade relationships in order to reach this goal?
If not, what actions should be taken by the WTO to counteract
the negative effects of regional trade agreements?
CHILD LABOR
a. As global trade expands, should the international community
move to create trade rules that would end child labor?
If so, what specific rules should be made in this regard?
b. What implications would a trade policy that effects
child labor have on developing countries?
There will be two conferences held on International Trade
that will specifically examine the issues for negotiation
listed above.The first conference will cover the Regional
Trade Agreements issues and the second will cover Child
Labor issues.
